Historic Civilizations & Biological Affinities! ❌
While I primarily focus on genetics and phenotypes, I also do read a lot of anthropological works, and other sources that are used in identifying characteristics common to various human population groups via physical analysis of remains (craniometrics, morphotropics...etc). I still believe in general archaeogenetics is much more reliable than some of the older methods, as it can directly link ancestry more thoroughly, especially autosomal DNA analysis is really the most accurate when gauging a populations origins and ethnic/racial background. Indeed, according to 🔗Sirak, Kendra A et al. (2021): "morphological data have limited resolution for determining biological relationships relative to genome-wide data". In general though, everything should at the end of the day be taken into consideration, and a personal curiosity of mine is the relation between genetic admixture and its effects on cranial and body morphology, including characteristics like hair texture, nasal index, skull size and more. Nonetheless, I have taken it upon myself to still compile both older and recent material that deals with specific African societies and other relevant world cultures. Included in this section as well will be some genomic studies that have been conducted on groups belonging to these industries/civilizations.
List of Archeological & Bioanthropological Findings:
North African Civilizations of the Maghreb
According to Eugene Pittard (1926), the Phoenician metropolis contained representatives of various ethnic groups. He emphasised this by mentioning a buried Carthagian priestess whom had Negroid characteristics. Pittard would continue that the most usual and common features of Carthagians included having a leptorrhine nose (55-70 index being very long and narrow). The leptorrhine (“tall and thin”) nose is 🔗associated with Caucasian or Indo-European descent. The platyrrhine (“broad and flat”) nose is associated with African origins. And the mesorrhine (“intermediate”) nose has features intermediate between the leptorrhine nose and the platyrrhine nose. The morphological review showed varying traits, likely indicating admixture.
🔗Race And History An Ethnological Introduction To History : Pittard Eugene : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive
According to Carleton S. Coon (1939) who studied a series of 117 skulls, of which 68 were male, he found that they "belonged for the most part to one characteristic type; dolicho to mesocephalic, with the cranial index at 75; fairly long vaulted, and hence moderately broad; with a very low vault, a moderately broad forehead, a short face, high orbits, and a narrow, projecting nose which often springs directly from the frontal bone with little or no nasion depression. These skulls are in many ways similar to the Western European Megalithic or Long Barrow type of the preceding millennium; but, as is to be expected in view of their late eastern Mediterranean origin, show modifications toward a shortening and widening of the vault, and a breaking of the nose." He further commented on the possible hair traits that: "The Greek evidence, already quoted, indicates that they were brunet."
🔗The Races of Europe - Steven Coons Carleton - Google Books
According to Gilbert Charles-Picard and Colette Charles Picard (1968), they wrote that: "The anthropological examination of skeletons found in tombs proves that there was no racial unity; the so-called Semitic type, characterized by the long, perfectly oval face, the thin aquiline nose, and the lengthened cranium, enlarged over the nape of the neck, has not been found in Carthage, nor for that matter in Sidon. On the other hand, another cranial form, with a fairly short face, prominent parietal bumps, farther forward and lower down than usual, is common in Lebanese burial-grounds and in those of the new Tyre: perhaps it belonged to the real Phoenicians. But most of the Punic population seem to have had African, and even Negro, ancestors"
🔗Daily Life in Carthage at the time of Hannibal - Gilbert Charles-Picard, Colette Charles-Picard - Google Books
🔗Daily life in Carthage at the time of Hannibal : Foster, A.E. : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive
A study conducted in 1970 by M. Chabeuf, showed little difference between 17 modern Tunisians, and 68 Punic remains. An analysis the following year on 42 North-West African skulls dating back to Roman times concluded that they were overall similar to modern Berbers and other Mediterranean populations, especially eastern Iberians. They also noted the presence of one outlier in Tunisia who appears to have inherited Mechtoid traits, which led them to hypothesize the persistence of such affinities well into the Punic and Roman era.
🔗Contribution à la craniométrie des Algériens modernes - Persée (persee.fr)
🔗Les squelettes « romains » et paléochrétiens du Musée d'Alger ; remarques sur le peuplement préislamique de l'Afrique du Nord - Persée (persee.fr)
M. C. Chamla and D Ferembach (1988) in their entry dealing with the craniometric conclusions of Protohistorical Algerians and Punics in the region of Tunisia, found strong sexual dimorphism with male skulls being robust. Mediterranean elements were dominant (74.07% on average, with 79.16% for Punics), but with Brachycephalic European (6.17%), Mechtoid (IBM) features (7.40%), as well as 'Negroid' (12.34%) traits were present in some of the samples. Overall, Punic burials showed affinities with Algerians, Roman Era skulls from Tarragona (Spain), Guanches, and to a lesser extent Abydos (XVIIIth dynasty), Etruscans, Bronze Age Syrians (Euphrates) and skulls from Lozere (France). In the year 2007, M.C. Chamla's report on 22 males, and 23 females, were said to share cranial traits and size affinities with Punics from other burials. The majority of her samples were also mesocranic, having brachycranic and dolichocranic affinities.
🔗Anthropologie (Partie II) (openedition.org)
🔗Mortuary Landscapes of North Africa - Google Books
In 1994, a Punic burial crypt was discovered on Byrsa Hill, near the entry to the National Museum of Carthage in Tunisia. Inside this crypt were the remains of a young man along with a range of burial goods, all dating to the late 6th century BCE. An osteological analysis of the young man from Byrsa, or Ariche, as he has become known, determined that he was approximately 1.7 m tall and aged between 19 and 24 years, and a craniometric analysis indicated likely Mediterranean/European ancestry as opposed to African or Asian. In 2016, it was revealed that the individual belonged to the rare U5b2c1, which was said to be the earliest evidence of this European lineage in North Africa.
🔗A European Mitochondrial Haplotype Identified in Ancient Phoenician Remains from Carthage, North Africa - PMC (nih.gov)
A 2001 study by Joel D. Irish, found strong similarities and very small distances between the Canary Islanders and Carthaginians, who originated in West Asia, suggesting a particularly close affinity, despite the geographic distance between these two populations. This result according to Irish, may reflect Berber/Carthaginian admixture. Overall, the results found that: "The Canary Island sample is most similar to the four samples from Northwest Africa: the Shawia Berbers, Kabyle Berbers, Bedouin Arabs and Carthaginians, less similar to the three Egyptian samples and least like the three Nubian samples."
🔗Canary islands-north African population affinities: measures of divergence based on dental morphology - ScienceDirect
A cranial study from 2009, analyzed 24 Punic skulls, the results showed individuals of both Caucasoid and Sub-Saharan background. However, the authors noted that no North Africans, Iberians or other groups were used in the comparative analysis, only American Whites and American Blacks, which if including other populations, would have resulted in different results as indicated by their preliminary report which initially utilized all the American populations from the Forensic Data Bank (ie. American Indians, Japanese, Chinese, Vietnamese and Hispanic), which resulted in Punic skulls having affinities with a variety of world populations. The study as explained by the conductors assumed each skull strictly belonged to either White Americans or Black Americans, with sex determination included. The disclaimer explicitly stated some issues with this methodology: "Even if the skull comes from a group identity different to those in the database, which is the case of the Ibizan material, the programme will still classify the specimen with the closest group available. Also, the system is based on American populations. No North African samples are available in the database. Caution applying FORDISC 2.0 to non-American ancient populations has been highlighted elsewhere." Furthermore; "...by providing only a choice between ‘White’ (European Caucasoid ancestry) and ‘Black’ (sub-Saharan ancestry), the computer programme might force skulls of North Africa or Eastern Mediterranean ancestry into the category ‘Black’." Therefore, this study is basically incorrect in many assumptions and kind of pointless all things considered, seeing as zero appropriate comparative groups were utilized from the region of study. It is also known that Black Americans are 🔗cranially intermediate between White Europeans and West Africans, which can influences the proxy selection (still an interesting undertaking nontheless).
🔗The presence of african individuals in punic populations from the Island of Ibiza (Spain): contributions from physical anthropology (uib.es)
🔗https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/about-us/lab/forensic-science-communications/fsc/july2002/ubelaker1.htm
S.O.Y. Keita's report in 2018, found the pre-Roman Carthaginian series to be intermediate between the Phoenician and Maghrebian. He noted the findings are consistent with an interpretation that it reflects both local and Levantine ancestry due to specific interactions in the ancient period.
🔗Brief Report: Carthaginian Affinities with Ancient and Recent Maghreban and Levantine Groups: Craniometric Analyses Using Distance and Discrimination on JSTOR
https://mathildasanthropologyblog.wordpress.com/2008/11/21/studies-of-ancient-crania-from-northern-africa/
Y-DNA
An archaeogenetic paper released in 2019, linked and found that the Punic/Phoenician presence in ancient Spanish remains, was indicated by southern Iberia receiving a large influx of North African ancestry during the Roman period, and some Levantine ancestry accompanied by the presence of haplogroup J2.
🔗https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aav4040
mtDNA
Mitochondrial analysis of 10 Punic samples from the necropolis of Tharros in Sardinia (5th-3rd century BCE) shows closest genetic affinities with North African and Iberian populations.
🔗Insights into Punic genetic signatures in the southern necropolis of Tharros (Sardinia): Annals of Human Biology: Vol 48, No 3 (informahealthcare.com)
auDNA
Zalloua, P., Collins, C.J., Gosling, A. et al. (2018) showed that Eastern Mediterranean and North African influence in the Punic population of Ibiza was primarily male dominated, with the maternal ancestry resembling typical European lineages, primarily Western European signatures. On the PCA, the Phoenician/Ibiza samples clustered with Europeans. The results were said to be in strong contrast to some of the anthropological findings, that supported the presence of both North and sub-Saharan African affinities in Punic individuals from the Island of Ibiza, with only evidence from other genetic studies showing ancestry solely from the former.
🔗Ancient DNA of Phoenician remains indicates discontinuity in the settlement history of Ibiza - PMC (nih.gov)
According to Olalde et al. (2018): "In the southeast [Spain], we recovered genomic data from 45 individuals dated between the 3rd and 16th centuries CE. All analyzed individuals fell outside the genetic variation of preceding Iberian Iron Age populations and harbored ancestry from both Southern European and North African populations, as well as additional Levantine-related ancestry that could potentially reflect ancestry from Jewish groups. These results demonstrate that by the Roman period, southern Iberia had experienced a major influx of North African ancestry, probably related to the well-known mobility patterns during the Roman Empire or to the earlier Phoenician-Punic presence; the latter is also supported by the observation of the Phoenician-associated Y-chromosome J2."
🔗The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years | Science
Fernandes et al. (2020), had found a Phoenician Ibiza individual associated with Carthaginian descent to be modelled as 10.8% Iran Neolithic and 89.2% Morocco Late Neolithic (KEB). Other samples, from the Sardinian Calcolithic, were also found to be of similar North African ancestry. Interestingly, the contemporary Sicilians were shown to have derived almost half of their ancestry from Morocco_LN sources.
🔗The Spread of Steppe and Iranian Related Ancestry in the Islands of the Western Mediterranean - PMC (nih.gov)
In the same year, Marcus Joseph, H et al. (2020) found that all 6 individuals from the Punic site in Villamar, had North African ancestry ranging from 20-35%, which was absent in the earlier Sardinian populations, highlighting movements from Carthage, Tunisia.
🔗Genetic history from the Middle Neolithic to present on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia - PMC (nih.gov)
According to Sarno Cillion de Fanti in 2021, who sampled ancient Punic populations from Tharros, his team of scientists wrote that it was worth noting how they appear genetically closer to North African populations; "...indeed, rather than clustering with other modern Sardinians, they instead occupy an intermediate position on the right side of the PCA plot between North African groups and Southern Europeans."
🔗Insights into Punic genetic signatures in the southern necropolis of Tharros (Sardinia): Annals of Human Biology: Vol 48, No 3 (tandfonline.com)
Another study in 2021 showed that the Punic population in Quarto Cappello del Prete, Italy, from the 1st-3rd Century CE, based on the admixture analysis of whole genomes, confirmed their strong similarity with modern North African populations (Southern Near-Eastern) and QCP (Southern European Mediterraneans).
🔗(PDF) Ancient genomes from a rural site in Imperial Rome (1 st –3 rd cent. CE): a genetic junction in the Roman Empire (researchgate.net)
In 2022, 30 ancient individuals from Carthaginian cities around the central Mediterranean were sequenced. In a city in Tunisia, a highly heterogeneous population was observed in Kerkouane, spanning from modern Mozabite populations to modern Sicillian populations, consisting of a number of primary genetic clusters. One of the genetic groups includes 4 individuals who have genetic continuity with preceding Maghrebi Neolithic farmers, suggesting that these individuals represent an autochthonous North African population. 1 other individual can be modeled with 100% Morocco Late Neolithic farmer ancestry, while 3 individuals can be modeled predominantly with this component, along with an addition of a minor Steppe-related ancestry. The second cluster contains 7 individuals who are genetically similar to Bronze Age Sicilian and Central Italian populations, as well as some individuals from the Hellenistic Greek colony of Empuries. The last individual, who projects near modern Mozabite and Moroccan populations in the PCA, can be modelled with a combination of Morocco Early Neolithic and Anatolia Neolithic ancestry. When compared to other ancient individuals, this person formed a clade with ancient Canary Island Inhabitants, thought to be representative of the original founding population of the city. Surprisingly, no individuals with large amounts of Levantine ancestry were detected in this group of Tunisian Punics. According to the authors: "These results indicate that autochthonous North African populations contributed substantially to the genetic makeup of Kerkouane. The contribution of autochthonous North African populations in Carthaginian history is obscured by the use of terms like “Western Phoenicians”, and even to an extent, “Punic”, in the literature to refer to Carthaginians, as it implies a primarily colonial population and diminishes indigenous involvement in the Carthaginian Empire. As a result, the role of autochthonous populations has been largely overlooked in studies of Carthage and its empire. Genetic approaches are well suited to examine such assumptions, and here we show that North African populations contributed substantially to the genetic makeup of Carthaginian cities."
🔗The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years | Science
Fernandes et al. (2020), had found a Phoenician Ibiza individual associated with Carthaginian descent to be modelled as 10.8% Iran Neolithic and 89.2% Morocco Late Neolithic (KEB). Other samples, from the Sardinian Calcolithic, were also found to be of similar North African ancestry. Interestingly, the contemporary Sicilians were shown to have derived almost half of their ancestry from Morocco_LN sources.
🔗The Spread of Steppe and Iranian Related Ancestry in the Islands of the Western Mediterranean - PMC (nih.gov)
In the same year, Marcus Joseph, H et al. (2020) found that all 6 individuals from the Punic site in Villamar, had North African ancestry ranging from 20-35%, which was absent in the earlier Sardinian populations, highlighting movements from Carthage, Tunisia.
🔗Genetic history from the Middle Neolithic to present on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia - PMC (nih.gov)
According to Sarno Cillion de Fanti in 2021, who sampled ancient Punic populations from Tharros, his team of scientists wrote that it was worth noting how they appear genetically closer to North African populations; "...indeed, rather than clustering with other modern Sardinians, they instead occupy an intermediate position on the right side of the PCA plot between North African groups and Southern Europeans."
🔗Insights into Punic genetic signatures in the southern necropolis of Tharros (Sardinia): Annals of Human Biology: Vol 48, No 3 (tandfonline.com)
Another study in 2021 showed that the Punic population in Quarto Cappello del Prete, Italy, from the 1st-3rd Century CE, based on the admixture analysis of whole genomes, confirmed their strong similarity with modern North African populations (Southern Near-Eastern) and QCP (Southern European Mediterraneans).
🔗(PDF) Ancient genomes from a rural site in Imperial Rome (1 st –3 rd cent. CE): a genetic junction in the Roman Empire (researchgate.net)
In 2022, 30 ancient individuals from Carthaginian cities around the central Mediterranean were sequenced. In a city in Tunisia, a highly heterogeneous population was observed in Kerkouane, spanning from modern Mozabite populations to modern Sicillian populations, consisting of a number of primary genetic clusters. One of the genetic groups includes 4 individuals who have genetic continuity with preceding Maghrebi Neolithic farmers, suggesting that these individuals represent an autochthonous North African population. 1 other individual can be modeled with 100% Morocco Late Neolithic farmer ancestry, while 3 individuals can be modeled predominantly with this component, along with an addition of a minor Steppe-related ancestry. The second cluster contains 7 individuals who are genetically similar to Bronze Age Sicilian and Central Italian populations, as well as some individuals from the Hellenistic Greek colony of Empuries. The last individual, who projects near modern Mozabite and Moroccan populations in the PCA, can be modelled with a combination of Morocco Early Neolithic and Anatolia Neolithic ancestry. When compared to other ancient individuals, this person formed a clade with ancient Canary Island Inhabitants, thought to be representative of the original founding population of the city. Surprisingly, no individuals with large amounts of Levantine ancestry were detected in this group of Tunisian Punics. According to the authors: "These results indicate that autochthonous North African populations contributed substantially to the genetic makeup of Kerkouane. The contribution of autochthonous North African populations in Carthaginian history is obscured by the use of terms like “Western Phoenicians”, and even to an extent, “Punic”, in the literature to refer to Carthaginians, as it implies a primarily colonial population and diminishes indigenous involvement in the Carthaginian Empire. As a result, the role of autochthonous populations has been largely overlooked in studies of Carthage and its empire. Genetic approaches are well suited to examine such assumptions, and here we show that North African populations contributed substantially to the genetic makeup of Carthaginian cities."
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| PCA Diagram of all Ancient Populations in the Mediterranean Clustering with Contemporary Groups |
🔗A genetic history of continuity and mobility in the Iron Age central Mediterranean | Nature Ecology & Evolution
🔗A genetic history of continuity and mobility in the Iron Age central Mediterranean | Request PDF (researchgate.net)
Some major upcoming studies on Ancient Carthagians include: 'The Punic Mediterranean - A New Ancient DNA Perspective'. In which new genome-wide ancient DNA for samples of Punic remains across Iberia, Ibiza, Sicily and Sardinia were sampled, to determine whether the cultural links originating from the Western Maghreb, accompanied North African genetic ancestry throughout the entire region. Another one is 'Archaeogenetics and the Social Dynamics of Ancestry and Identity in Vandal and Byzantine Carthage, Tunisia', which sampled 150 individuals from the eras of Germanic Vandal and Byzantine dominance of the region in North Africa.
🔗submissions.e-a-a.org/eaa2021/repository/preview.php?Abstract=2185
🔗imc.leeds.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/28/2023/01/IMC-2023-Programme_Web.pdf
🔗A genetic history of continuity and mobility in the Iron Age central Mediterranean | Request PDF (researchgate.net)
Some major upcoming studies on Ancient Carthagians include: 'The Punic Mediterranean - A New Ancient DNA Perspective'. In which new genome-wide ancient DNA for samples of Punic remains across Iberia, Ibiza, Sicily and Sardinia were sampled, to determine whether the cultural links originating from the Western Maghreb, accompanied North African genetic ancestry throughout the entire region. Another one is 'Archaeogenetics and the Social Dynamics of Ancestry and Identity in Vandal and Byzantine Carthage, Tunisia', which sampled 150 individuals from the eras of Germanic Vandal and Byzantine dominance of the region in North Africa.
🔗submissions.e-a-a.org/eaa2021/repository/preview.php?Abstract=2185
🔗imc.leeds.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/28/2023/01/IMC-2023-Programme_Web.pdf
Relevant Literary Information
AncientLibyans: https://mathildasanthropologyblog.wordpress.com/2008/07/17/the-ancient-libyans/
According to Polybius of Megalopolis, the Carthagian army of Hannibal Barca consisted of Libyo-Phonecians and Libyans, Iberians and Italians.
🔗Ref3930293022
Strabo said Garamantes were not Aethiopians and distant from them.
AncientLibyans: https://mathildasanthropologyblog.wordpress.com/2008/07/17/the-ancient-libyans/
According to Polybius of Megalopolis, the Carthagian army of Hannibal Barca consisted of Libyo-Phonecians and Libyans, Iberians and Italians.
🔗Ref3930293022
Strabo said Garamantes were not Aethiopians and distant from them.
🔗https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/17C*.html
Claudian wrote: "When tired of each noblest matron Gildo hands her over to the Moors. Married in Carthage city these Sidonian mothers needs must mate with barbarians. He thrusts upon me an Ethiopian as a son-in-law, a Berber as a husband. The hideous half-breed child affrights its cradle."
🔗The Project Gutenberg eBook of Claudian, volume 1 (of 2), by Claudius Claudianus (translator: Maurice Platnauer).
In 1990, based on the previous work of M.C. Chamla and Sergi, they noted that stated that "In the Punic burial grounds, Negroid remains were not rare and there were black auxiliaries in the Carthaginian army who were certainly not Nilotics."
🔗Ancient Civilizations of Africa - Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa - Google Books
Claudian wrote: "When tired of each noblest matron Gildo hands her over to the Moors. Married in Carthage city these Sidonian mothers needs must mate with barbarians. He thrusts upon me an Ethiopian as a son-in-law, a Berber as a husband. The hideous half-breed child affrights its cradle."
🔗The Project Gutenberg eBook of Claudian, volume 1 (of 2), by Claudius Claudianus (translator: Maurice Platnauer).
In 1990, based on the previous work of M.C. Chamla and Sergi, they noted that stated that "In the Punic burial grounds, Negroid remains were not rare and there were black auxiliaries in the Carthaginian army who were certainly not Nilotics."
🔗Ancient Civilizations of Africa - Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa - Google Books
https://www.carc.ox.ac.uk/carc/gems/Styles-and-Periods/Classical-Phoenician-Scarabs/Joined-heads
🔴Numidia (~500 BCE) (🧬N=1)
A Numidian individual from Setif in Algeria, was found to be of the paternal haplogroup E-M81 by FTDNA, and the autosomal composition was similar to modern Northwest Africans. He is represented by the black dot on the PCA analysis, and even when incorporating other human groups (especially Mediterranean populations) whom could have had a presence in the area, the sample is consistently most similar to contemporary Maghrebis. The individual studied was specifically closest to the Riffian Berbers of northern Morocco.
🔗Stable population structure in Europe since the Iron Age, despite high mobility | bioRxiv
🔴Minoans (~3000 BCE) (🧬N=157)
An analysis by Argyropoulos in 1989 showed remarkable similarity in craniofacial morphology between Minoans and modern Greeks, suggesting a close affinity, and that the Greek ethnic group remained stable in its facial morphology over the analyzed dates.
🔗A comparative cephalometric investigation of the Greek craniofacial pattern through 4,000 years - PubMed (nih.gov)
A study by Hughey et al. (2013) compared skeletal mtDNA from ancient Minoan skeletons that were sealed in a cave in the Lasithi Plateau to 135 samples from Greece, Anatolia, Western and Northern Europe, North Africa and Egypt. The researchers found that the Minoan skeletons were genetically very similar to modern-day Europeans, especially close to modern-day Cretans from the same region. They were also genetically similar to Early European Farmers, but distinct from Egyptians or Libyans.
🔗A European population in Minoan Bronze Age Crete - PMC (nih.gov)
Mysterious Minoans Were European, DNA Finds | Live Science
🔴Numidia (~500 BCE) (🧬N=1)
A Numidian individual from Setif in Algeria, was found to be of the paternal haplogroup E-M81 by FTDNA, and the autosomal composition was similar to modern Northwest Africans. He is represented by the black dot on the PCA analysis, and even when incorporating other human groups (especially Mediterranean populations) whom could have had a presence in the area, the sample is consistently most similar to contemporary Maghrebis. The individual studied was specifically closest to the Riffian Berbers of northern Morocco.
🔗Stable population structure in Europe since the Iron Age, despite high mobility | bioRxiv
 |
| *credit:🔗PCA Analysis of Numidian Individual by @NekorMauri |
https://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/numidia/t.html
🔴Garamantes (~500 BCE)
Giuseppe Sergi (1951) analysed human skeletal remains from the Fezzan dating from the end of the Pastoral period up to the Roman period. Sergi concluded that the Garamantes were mostly of Mediterranean type, similar to modern Berbers. However, he also found a substantial presence of mixed types, as well as Negroid types in other Garamantean burials. In a later review of the skeletal evidence analysis conducted by Sergi years prior, M.C. Chamla (1968) found that 46.6% of the individuals were of Mediterranean type, 26.6% were of mixed Mediterranean-Negroid type, and 26.6% were of predominantly Negroid type. In 2002, Francesca Ricci in studying another set of Garamantian remains, discovered that cranial morphology suggests elements that are intermediate between Mediterranean and Sub-Saharan phenotypes. Their stature was tall, with elongated limbs, and teeth small, with prominent sexual dimorphism. In another study in 2013, Ricci analysed skeletal samples from the Garamantian site of Fewet in the Fezzan and found that they were similar to the Mediterranean type identified by Sergi, but with some evidence for gene flow from Sub-Saharan African populations. This conclusion was also suggested previously by Giyseppe Sergi, who discussed hybridization between the Mediterranean and Negroid groups. By other body morphological indicators, the stature at one site fits with Black Americans, while stature in the other site fits more with White Americans. The Dental traits were also divided similarly with large dental patterns being observed in the Negroid site, and smaller teeth akin to North Africans/Mediterraneans in the other.
🔗(PDF) The human skeletal sample from Fewet (researchgate.net)
🔗(PDF) Life and death at Fewet (researchgate.net)
🔗The human skeletal remains: inventory and inferences | Request PDF (researchgate.net)
David Mattingly in 2003, commented based on the anthropological evidence that: "The Garamantes contained a significant component of light-skinned Libyans and some at least of these people were buried in monumental graves. This picture differs from the situation in the Sahara in the late Neolithic, as Chamla's work suggests a higher proportion of Negroid types at that date, which might suggest that the creation of Garamantian civilization involved the in-migration of at least some part of the population from regions to the north or northeast. The cemeteries contain a substantial number (just over 50%) of individuals of either mixed blood or full negro physiognomy. Some of these individuals may have been in poorer graves, but not all of them, suggesting that some individuals of mixed race or black skin were prominent within Garamantian society. Given the literary testimony of Garamantian raids against their 'Ethiopian' neighbours, it is likely that some of the Negroes present were slaves or descendants of slaves. The maintenance of strong non-Negroid traits into late and post-Garamantian contexts would seem to indicate that intermixing of the races was not completely open and may have been structured within Garamantian society."
🔗The Archaeology of Fazzan Vol. 1: Synthesis – British Institute for Libyan & Northern African Studies (bilnas.org)
In 2010, Marta Mirazon Lahr conducted research on skeletons from Fezzan dating from the Roman era and found that the skeletons clustered most closely with Neolithic Sahelian samples (Kiffians/Tenerians) from Chad, Mali and Niger, and secondarily to Roman Egyptians from Alexandria and Nubians from Soleb. 1st millennium BCE samples from Algeria and Tunisia were somewhat more distant but still rather close to the Fezzan skeletons. Therefore, she concluded that the Garamantes had connections with Africans both North and South of the Sahara: "Overall, these results are reasonable given that from the archaeological evidence it is known that the Garamantes were in close connection with Sub-Saharan Africa, and at different times with people from Egypt and the Mediterranean coast of Africa."
🔗(PDF) Human Skeletal Remains, Fazzan, Libya | Marta Mirazon Lahr - Academia.edu
Efthymia Nikita et al. (2011) examined the biological affinities of the Garamantes using cranial nonmetric traits and the Mean Measure of Divergence and Mahalanobis D(2). They were compared to other North African populations, including the Egyptian, Algerian, Tunisian and Sudanese, roughly contemporary to them. Overall, three clusters were identified: (1) the Garamantes, (2) Gizeh and Kerma, and (3) Soleb, Alexandrians, Algerians and Carthagians. The analysis concluded that the Garamantes were isolated, with the Sahara playing a role as a barrier to geneflow. The distance between the Garamantes and their neighbors was high and the population appeared to be an outlier.
🔗Sahara: Barrier or corridor? Nonmetric cranial traits and biological affinities of North African late Holocene populations - PubMed (nih.gov)
A study in 2011, posited that the most likely origins of the Libyan Tuareg, stems from the collapse of the Garamantes civilization. The results revealed that Tuareg individuals especially from Tahala, overwhelmingly carried the Berber founding lineage E-M81, variant of the E1b1b Y-Chromosome. Other Tuareg groups like Al Awaynat were generally equally divided between E1b1b and a none negligible paternal E1b1a, which strongly points to them assimilating groups of West African origins into their communities. The mtDNA of another group of Tuaregs, but in the northern Fezzan was mostly H1, with some V clades, and M1.
🔗Deep into the roots of the Libyan Tuareg: a genetic survey of their paternal heritage - PubMed (nih.gov)
🔗(PDF) Deep into the roots of the Libyan Tuareg: A genetic survey of their paternal heritage | Cristina Martinez-Labarga - Academia.edu
🔗Mitochondrial Haplogroup H1 in North Africa: An Early Holocene Arrival from Iberia - PMC (nih.gov)
In 2019, the remains of a young Sub-Saharan African woman was discovered in Garamantes burials, and she possessed a lip plug that is associated with Sahelian African groups. This individual was buried among others with Sub-Saharan African affinities that were part of the identified heterogenous Garamantian population. Roninka K. Power stated that the combination of morphometric and isotopic work further reinforces the view that Garamantian society included individuals of diverse geographical origin, some of whom may have been first generation Trans-Saharan migrants. The craniometric results also proved this diversity, as they identified another sub-group within the Garamantes buried in the Wadi al-Ajjal, with a morphology that is widely observed among Mediterranean people. This was said to be likely the original source population as they expanded south intermixing with other communities.
🔗Power et al 2019 Human mobility and identity - FINAL DRAFT.docx (live.com)
🔗Human Mobility and Identity (Chapter 4) - Burials, Migration and Identity in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond (cambridge.org)
🔴Mauretania (~250 BCE)
European Civilizations of Southern Europe
An analysis by Argyropoulos in 1989 showed remarkable similarity in craniofacial morphology between Minoans and modern Greeks, suggesting a close affinity, and that the Greek ethnic group remained stable in its facial morphology over the analyzed dates.
🔗A comparative cephalometric investigation of the Greek craniofacial pattern through 4,000 years - PubMed (nih.gov)
A study by Hughey et al. (2013) compared skeletal mtDNA from ancient Minoan skeletons that were sealed in a cave in the Lasithi Plateau to 135 samples from Greece, Anatolia, Western and Northern Europe, North Africa and Egypt. The researchers found that the Minoan skeletons were genetically very similar to modern-day Europeans, especially close to modern-day Cretans from the same region. They were also genetically similar to Early European Farmers, but distinct from Egyptians or Libyans.
🔗A European population in Minoan Bronze Age Crete - PMC (nih.gov)
Mysterious Minoans Were European, DNA Finds | Live Science
🔗https://www.livescience.com/31983-minoans-were-genetically-european.html
Another craniometric study by Papagrigorakis in 2014 on Ancient Greek populations showed that there was population continuity over 4,000 years, with strong morphological similarities between modern Greeks and Minoans.
🔗Craniofacial morphology in ancient and modern Greeks through 4,000 years - Anthropologischer Anzeiger Volume 71 No. 3 — Schweizerbart science publishers
Lazaridis et al. (2017) found that Minoans and Mycenaean Greeks were genetically highly similar, but not identical, and that modern Greeks descend from these populations. Compared to present day Western Eurasian populations, Mycenaean Greeks and Minoans were least differentiated from the populations of modern Greece, Cyprus, Albania, and Italy. Furthermore, the results showed that “proposed migrations, such as settlement by Egyptian or Phoenician colonists are not discernible in our data, as there is no measurable Levantine or African influence in the Minoans and Myceneans, thus rejecting the hypothesis that the cultures of the Aegean were seeded by migrants from the old civilizations of these regions.” A subsequent study by Lazaridis et al. (2022) concluded that most of their ancestry came from Anatolian Farmers (EEF). Components of the Minoans and Mycenaeans according to the aforementioned Iosif Lazardis study were as follows: Mycaneans were 65.8% EEF, 14% PPN, 22% CHG, 5.5% EHG, 2.3% Iron Gates Mesolithic and the Minoans were 76.7% EEF, 9.5% PPN, 19.4% CHG, 2.3% EHG, 0.7% Iron Gates Mesolithic.
Another craniometric study by Papagrigorakis in 2014 on Ancient Greek populations showed that there was population continuity over 4,000 years, with strong morphological similarities between modern Greeks and Minoans.
🔗Craniofacial morphology in ancient and modern Greeks through 4,000 years - Anthropologischer Anzeiger Volume 71 No. 3 — Schweizerbart science publishers
Lazaridis et al. (2017) found that Minoans and Mycenaean Greeks were genetically highly similar, but not identical, and that modern Greeks descend from these populations. Compared to present day Western Eurasian populations, Mycenaean Greeks and Minoans were least differentiated from the populations of modern Greece, Cyprus, Albania, and Italy. Furthermore, the results showed that “proposed migrations, such as settlement by Egyptian or Phoenician colonists are not discernible in our data, as there is no measurable Levantine or African influence in the Minoans and Myceneans, thus rejecting the hypothesis that the cultures of the Aegean were seeded by migrants from the old civilizations of these regions.” A subsequent study by Lazaridis et al. (2022) concluded that most of their ancestry came from Anatolian Farmers (EEF). Components of the Minoans and Mycenaeans according to the aforementioned Iosif Lazardis study were as follows: Mycaneans were 65.8% EEF, 14% PPN, 22% CHG, 5.5% EHG, 2.3% Iron Gates Mesolithic and the Minoans were 76.7% EEF, 9.5% PPN, 19.4% CHG, 2.3% EHG, 0.7% Iron Gates Mesolithic.
🔗Ancient DNA analysis reveals Minoan and Mycenaean origins (phys.org)
The genetic history of the Southern Arc: A bridge between West Asia and Europe | Science
🔗Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans - PMC (nih.gov)
Similarly, a study in 2021 sequenced 6 Early (EBA) to Middle Bronze Age (MBA) whole genomes, and 11 mitochondrial genes from three Bronze Age cultures of the Aegean Sea. They found that the 3,000 BCE EBA Aegeans were homogenous, and showed almost total ancestry from Anatolian Neolithic Farmers. In contrast, the Middle Bronze Age individuals of northern Greece differ from EBA populations in showing ∼50% Pontic-Caspian Steppe-related ancestry, dated to 2,600-2,000 BCE. They also found that present-day Greeks are genetically similar to these 2,000 BCE Aegeans from Northern Greece.
🔗The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations - ScienceDirect
In 2023, whole genome-wide data of 102 ancient individuals from Crete, the Greek mainland and Aegean Islands were sequenced, spanning from the Neolithic to Iron Age periods of history. It was discovered that the early farmers from Crete shared the same ancestry as other Neolithic Aegeans. It also confirmed previous findings for additional Central/Eastern European ancestry in the Greek mainland by the Middle Bronze Age.
🔗Ancient DNA reveals admixture history and endogamy in the prehistoric Aegean - PubMed (nih.gov)
A multidisciplinary report in 2024, also included a bioarcheological investigation conducted on remains in Armenoi, Crete. The research revealed that the DNA of 23 newly sequenced individuals from late Minoan tombs had derived most of their ancestry from an Anatolian Neolithic source. Modern Greeks share this genetic profile, but are more shifted towards the Yamnaya on the PCA, and slightly differentiated from the early Bronze-Age Greek populations. The admixture analysis identified three main reference components: Anatolian Neolithic, Iranian Neolithic, and Western Hunter-Gatherer, with the Minoans also having some Yamnaya related ancestry. The majority of individuals in the necropolis formed a homogenous population, with the exception of one individual, who was more similar to the populations of Western Europe. Overall, the Minoans in the study were found to be most similar to the other published genomes of Myceneans from mainland Greece, however on the PCA analysis, they plot exactly in-between both Minoans and Myceneans. The researchers noted that based on their genomic profile and placement, they may have been a mix of both groups.
🔗https://books.google.co.tz/books?hl=en&lr=&id=5Y3xEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA29&dq=minoan+dna&ots=fE5OB-wZWG&sig=0GLsnen2NxWVMCCIGY1V2vBtAok&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=minoan%20dna&f=false
Interesting Upcoming Studies Include: 'Ancient genomes from a Roca Vecchia, Apulia, shed light on Minoan modes of colonisation', which is a study that will cover the presence of Minoans in the European Mediterranean, including Italy.
The genetic history of the Southern Arc: A bridge between West Asia and Europe | Science
🔗Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans - PMC (nih.gov)
Similarly, a study in 2021 sequenced 6 Early (EBA) to Middle Bronze Age (MBA) whole genomes, and 11 mitochondrial genes from three Bronze Age cultures of the Aegean Sea. They found that the 3,000 BCE EBA Aegeans were homogenous, and showed almost total ancestry from Anatolian Neolithic Farmers. In contrast, the Middle Bronze Age individuals of northern Greece differ from EBA populations in showing ∼50% Pontic-Caspian Steppe-related ancestry, dated to 2,600-2,000 BCE. They also found that present-day Greeks are genetically similar to these 2,000 BCE Aegeans from Northern Greece.
🔗The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations - ScienceDirect
In 2023, whole genome-wide data of 102 ancient individuals from Crete, the Greek mainland and Aegean Islands were sequenced, spanning from the Neolithic to Iron Age periods of history. It was discovered that the early farmers from Crete shared the same ancestry as other Neolithic Aegeans. It also confirmed previous findings for additional Central/Eastern European ancestry in the Greek mainland by the Middle Bronze Age.
🔗Ancient DNA reveals admixture history and endogamy in the prehistoric Aegean - PubMed (nih.gov)
A multidisciplinary report in 2024, also included a bioarcheological investigation conducted on remains in Armenoi, Crete. The research revealed that the DNA of 23 newly sequenced individuals from late Minoan tombs had derived most of their ancestry from an Anatolian Neolithic source. Modern Greeks share this genetic profile, but are more shifted towards the Yamnaya on the PCA, and slightly differentiated from the early Bronze-Age Greek populations. The admixture analysis identified three main reference components: Anatolian Neolithic, Iranian Neolithic, and Western Hunter-Gatherer, with the Minoans also having some Yamnaya related ancestry. The majority of individuals in the necropolis formed a homogenous population, with the exception of one individual, who was more similar to the populations of Western Europe. Overall, the Minoans in the study were found to be most similar to the other published genomes of Myceneans from mainland Greece, however on the PCA analysis, they plot exactly in-between both Minoans and Myceneans. The researchers noted that based on their genomic profile and placement, they may have been a mix of both groups.
🔗https://books.google.co.tz/books?hl=en&lr=&id=5Y3xEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA29&dq=minoan+dna&ots=fE5OB-wZWG&sig=0GLsnen2NxWVMCCIGY1V2vBtAok&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=minoan%20dna&f=false
Interesting Upcoming Studies Include: 'Ancient genomes from a Roca Vecchia, Apulia, shed light on Minoan modes of colonisation', which is a study that will cover the presence of Minoans in the European Mediterranean, including Italy.
🔴Mycaneans (~2000 BCE) (🧬N=4)
A 2017 study published in Nature, showed that modern Greeks resemble the sampled Myceneans most closely, but were somewhat distinct from the Minoans, only because of some additional admixture which lowered the Anatolian Farmer Neolithic component in contemporary Greek speaking populations.
🔗Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans | Nature
🔴Etruscans (~1000 BCE) (🧬N=58)
In 2004, Etruscan skulls were found to be similar to Celtic skulls.
🔗https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15125046/
🔗Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans | Nature
🔴Etruscans (~1000 BCE) (🧬N=58)
In 2004, Etruscan skulls were found to be similar to Celtic skulls.
🔗https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15125046/
In 2008
🔗https://www.nature.com/articles/ejhg2008224
A 2019 study, found that the 4 Etruscan individuals, did not differ from the Roman Latin populations, being virtually indistinguishable, pointing to a shared origins.
🔗https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7093155/
An archeogenetic study focusing on the question of Etruscan origins was published in 2021 and analyzed the autosomal DNA and the uniparental markers (Y-DNA and mtDNA) of 48 Iron Age individuals from Tuscany and Lazio, spanning from 800 to 1 BC, and concluded that the Etruscans were autochthonous, and they had a genetic profile similar to their Latin neighbors. In the Etruscan individuals the ancestral Steppe component was present in the same percentages found in the previously analyzed Iron Age Latins, and in the Etruscan DNA was completely absent a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean. Both Etruscans and Latins joined firmly in the European cluster, west of modern Italians. The Etruscans were a mixture of WHG, EEF, and Steppe ancestry; 75% of the Etruscan male individuals were found to belong to Haplogroup R1b, especially R1b-P312 and its derivative R1b-L2 whose direct ancestor is R1b-U152, while the most common mitochondrial DNA haplogroup among the Etruscans was H.
🔗The origin and legacy of the Etruscans through a 2000-year archeogenomic time transect - PMC (nih.gov)
In 2024, 6 new individuals of Etruscan remains from the 9th-7th Century BCE were studied. The admixture model showed that they were 84-92% Italy Beaker and 8-26% additional Yamnaya Samara (Steppe-related) ancestry, but with one individual being more similar to Iron Age populations from Scandinavia, and north-west Europe. They clustered on the PCA with modern Italians. The two individuals studied for Y-Chromosome belonged to J2, and the five studied mitochondrial haplogroups were typical of post-Neolithic Europe. Phenotypic traits showed blue-eyes, light/dark brown hair, and pale to intermediate skin tones.
🔗https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-61052-z
🔗https://www.repository.unipr.it/handle/1889/5272
🔗https://www.repository.unipr.it/bitstream/1889/5272/8/Tesi_dottorato_ZaroValentina.pdf
Upcoming Studies: A study will feature 50 new sequenced Etruscans from the Po Valley. Another study is 'Population changes in northern Italy from the Iron Age to Modern Times', which sequenced 66 genomes of Etruscans and some Romans, to discover the changes in Italy over the last 3000 years.
🔗https://www.repository.unipr.it/handle/1889/5272
Another study is 'Genomics of an iron age cite in fermo marche', which has 19 pre-Etruscan genomes.
🔴Ancient Greeks (~1000 BCE)
The fake, refuted, and fraudulent papers in 2001 and 2002 by Antonio Arnaiz-Villena (he was never a population geneticist, but a medical immunologist), was dismissed by all scientific journals as pseudoscientific garbage. He focused on HLA genes (immunity responses as they relate to disease/pathogens), it is not autosomal DNA which determines ethnicity/racial makeup, and all population genetics reports dealing with ancestry show Greeks are similar to other Europeans. The modern Greeks are Sub-Saharan myth and deception has been debunked numerous times, and is used as an example by all institutions on how to not conduct a genetic study. Upon its release, the paper was exposed by multiple population geneticists for scientific dishonesty and academic fraud, and should never be cited. In 2011, a team of academics and population geneticists concluded that: “Arnaiz-Villena et al. published five papers making the claim of a Sub-Saharan African origin for Greeks. World leading geneticists have rejected Arnaiz-Villena's methodology. Numerous studies using proper methodology and multiple genetic markers are presented, showing that Greeks cluster genetically with the rest of the Europeans, disproving Arnaiz-Villena's claims. History, as well as genetics, have been misused by Arnaiz-Villena's unprofessional statements and by their omissions and misquotations of scientific and historical citations. The abuse of scientific methods has earned Arnaiz-Villena's research a citation in a genetics textbook as an example of arbitrary interpretation and a deletion of one of his papers from the scientific literature." Furthermore, Modern Greeks speak a version of the Ancient Greek language, write with the same alphabet used for over 2,600 years, and still use a lot of their ancient customs and habits inherited from their ancestors. On top of the genetic evidence, they are also closely related to the ancients culturally and linguistically.
A 2019 study, found that the 4 Etruscan individuals, did not differ from the Roman Latin populations, being virtually indistinguishable, pointing to a shared origins.
🔗https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7093155/
An archeogenetic study focusing on the question of Etruscan origins was published in 2021 and analyzed the autosomal DNA and the uniparental markers (Y-DNA and mtDNA) of 48 Iron Age individuals from Tuscany and Lazio, spanning from 800 to 1 BC, and concluded that the Etruscans were autochthonous, and they had a genetic profile similar to their Latin neighbors. In the Etruscan individuals the ancestral Steppe component was present in the same percentages found in the previously analyzed Iron Age Latins, and in the Etruscan DNA was completely absent a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean. Both Etruscans and Latins joined firmly in the European cluster, west of modern Italians. The Etruscans were a mixture of WHG, EEF, and Steppe ancestry; 75% of the Etruscan male individuals were found to belong to Haplogroup R1b, especially R1b-P312 and its derivative R1b-L2 whose direct ancestor is R1b-U152, while the most common mitochondrial DNA haplogroup among the Etruscans was H.
🔗The origin and legacy of the Etruscans through a 2000-year archeogenomic time transect - PMC (nih.gov)
In 2024, 6 new individuals of Etruscan remains from the 9th-7th Century BCE were studied. The admixture model showed that they were 84-92% Italy Beaker and 8-26% additional Yamnaya Samara (Steppe-related) ancestry, but with one individual being more similar to Iron Age populations from Scandinavia, and north-west Europe. They clustered on the PCA with modern Italians. The two individuals studied for Y-Chromosome belonged to J2, and the five studied mitochondrial haplogroups were typical of post-Neolithic Europe. Phenotypic traits showed blue-eyes, light/dark brown hair, and pale to intermediate skin tones.
🔗https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-61052-z
🔗https://www.repository.unipr.it/handle/1889/5272
🔗https://www.repository.unipr.it/bitstream/1889/5272/8/Tesi_dottorato_ZaroValentina.pdf
Upcoming Studies: A study will feature 50 new sequenced Etruscans from the Po Valley. Another study is 'Population changes in northern Italy from the Iron Age to Modern Times', which sequenced 66 genomes of Etruscans and some Romans, to discover the changes in Italy over the last 3000 years.
🔗https://www.repository.unipr.it/handle/1889/5272
Another study is 'Genomics of an iron age cite in fermo marche', which has 19 pre-Etruscan genomes.
🔴Ancient Greeks (~1000 BCE)
The fake, refuted, and fraudulent papers in 2001 and 2002 by Antonio Arnaiz-Villena (he was never a population geneticist, but a medical immunologist), was dismissed by all scientific journals as pseudoscientific garbage. He focused on HLA genes (immunity responses as they relate to disease/pathogens), it is not autosomal DNA which determines ethnicity/racial makeup, and all population genetics reports dealing with ancestry show Greeks are similar to other Europeans. The modern Greeks are Sub-Saharan myth and deception has been debunked numerous times, and is used as an example by all institutions on how to not conduct a genetic study. Upon its release, the paper was exposed by multiple population geneticists for scientific dishonesty and academic fraud, and should never be cited. In 2011, a team of academics and population geneticists concluded that: “Arnaiz-Villena et al. published five papers making the claim of a Sub-Saharan African origin for Greeks. World leading geneticists have rejected Arnaiz-Villena's methodology. Numerous studies using proper methodology and multiple genetic markers are presented, showing that Greeks cluster genetically with the rest of the Europeans, disproving Arnaiz-Villena's claims. History, as well as genetics, have been misused by Arnaiz-Villena's unprofessional statements and by their omissions and misquotations of scientific and historical citations. The abuse of scientific methods has earned Arnaiz-Villena's research a citation in a genetics textbook as an example of arbitrary interpretation and a deletion of one of his papers from the scientific literature." Furthermore, Modern Greeks speak a version of the Ancient Greek language, write with the same alphabet used for over 2,600 years, and still use a lot of their ancient customs and habits inherited from their ancestors. On top of the genetic evidence, they are also closely related to the ancients culturally and linguistically.
🔗Dropped genetics paper lacked scientific merit | Nature
🔗Greeks | Sub-Saharan Africa | Origin | Arnaiz-Villena (greek-dna-sub-saharan-myth.org)
🔗Racial Reality: Greek DNA Sub-Saharan Myth
In 2017, the Y-Chromosome evidence of Greek Cypriots, supported long term continuity and settlement since the Neolithic and Bronze-Age periods.
🔗Greeks | Sub-Saharan Africa | Origin | Arnaiz-Villena (greek-dna-sub-saharan-myth.org)
🔗Racial Reality: Greek DNA Sub-Saharan Myth
In 2017, the Y-Chromosome evidence of Greek Cypriots, supported long term continuity and settlement since the Neolithic and Bronze-Age periods.
In 2024, an anthropological investigation
🔗Genes of the Ancients: Ancient Greek skulls from Attica compared to modern populations (genes-of-the-ancients.blogspot.com)
🔴Ancient Romans (~500 BCE) (🧬N=)
In 2018, Beachy Head Lady, who lived during Roman England was discovered to not be a Sub-Saharan African which was propagated by dishonest media, but a Greek lady from Cyprus. According to them, any skull which is not Anglo-Saxon, is "black", which the DNA analysis has now debunked their flawed and unprofessional metric analysis.
🔗The mystery of Beachy Head Lady – Museum Crush
In 2019, a large study that sampled 127 human autosomal DNA found that
🔗Stanford researchers lay out first genetic history of Rome | Stanford News
🔗Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean | Science
127 Ancient Roman genomes
🔗https://openpsych.net/paper/73/
🔗Genes of the Ancients: Ancient Greek skulls from Attica compared to modern populations (genes-of-the-ancients.blogspot.com)
🔴Ancient Romans (~500 BCE) (🧬N=)
In 2018, Beachy Head Lady, who lived during Roman England was discovered to not be a Sub-Saharan African which was propagated by dishonest media, but a Greek lady from Cyprus. According to them, any skull which is not Anglo-Saxon, is "black", which the DNA analysis has now debunked their flawed and unprofessional metric analysis.
🔗The mystery of Beachy Head Lady – Museum Crush
In 2019, a large study that sampled 127 human autosomal DNA found that
🔗Stanford researchers lay out first genetic history of Rome | Stanford News
🔗Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean | Science
 |
| Admixture Analysis of the Main Ancestral Components from Pre-Historic and Historic Eras |
🔗https://openpsych.net/paper/73/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0092867423011352
A new study on Roman DNA from the University of Palma in 2024 confirmed what earlier papers such as Antonio et al (2019) found. They discovered that the Roman Republic was built by native Italians, but that Imperial Rome was influenced substantially with migrants from the Greek Isles, Anatolia, and the Levant.
🔗https://www.repository.unipr.it/bitstream/1889/5556/1/Tesi_dottorato_revisionata_36%C2%B0ciclo_Costanza-Cannariato.pdf
🔗https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352409X2400138X
50 samples
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.03.18.585512v1
Vikings
🔗https://thuletide.wordpress.com/2020/09/25/viking-diversity/
https://www.academia.edu/44710820/Meanwhile_in_Megiddo_Exploring_the_Araxian_Pedigree_of_Munye_der_Chazzan_into_the_Last_Glacial_Period_via_the_Patriarch_Abraham_and_Dzudzuana_the_Caveman
🔗https://racialreality.blogspot.com/2020/08/phoenicians-moors-caucasoid.html
🔴Elamites (~000 BCE)maternal side the examined Elamites had haplogroups which one can also find among people in Pakistan and India
A new study on Roman DNA from the University of Palma in 2024 confirmed what earlier papers such as Antonio et al (2019) found. They discovered that the Roman Republic was built by native Italians, but that Imperial Rome was influenced substantially with migrants from the Greek Isles, Anatolia, and the Levant.
🔗https://www.repository.unipr.it/bitstream/1889/5556/1/Tesi_dottorato_revisionata_36%C2%B0ciclo_Costanza-Cannariato.pdf
🔗https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352409X2400138X
50 samples
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.03.18.585512v1
Vikings
🔗https://thuletide.wordpress.com/2020/09/25/viking-diversity/
Mesopotamian Civilizations of Western Asia
🔴Sumerians (~5,500 BCE)
🔴Akkadians (2,500 BCE)
🔴Babylonians (~2,000 BCE)
🔴Persians (~550 BCE)
According to Ishida Hanihara, Bronze Age samples from Northern Iran were intermediate between the African-Melanisian and European series. The Iran samples also formed their own twig in the overall cranialfacial features analysis. Issues: based on the lack of intermediate samples and (2) not evidence of a actual genetic affinity to Africans because the oceanic samples were similar to Africans too. according "Early West Asian" entailed Bronze Age Iran though Muslim er to Ishida 🔗https://www.commoncrowbooks.com/pages/books/H13739/jiro-ikeda/anthropological-studies-of-west-asia-ii-human-remains-from-the-tombs-in-dailaman-northern-iran-2 In another/update 2005 study which used more human population groups, Ishida Hanihara showed "EARLY IRAN/ISRAEL"(52) clustering with other West Asians "TURKEY/CYPRESS(51) and AFGHANISTAN/PAKISTAN(50).
🔴Akkadians (2,500 BCE)
🔴Babylonians (~2,000 BCE)
🔴Persians (~550 BCE)
According to Ishida Hanihara, Bronze Age samples from Northern Iran were intermediate between the African-Melanisian and European series. The Iran samples also formed their own twig in the overall cranialfacial features analysis. Issues: based on the lack of intermediate samples and (2) not evidence of a actual genetic affinity to Africans because the oceanic samples were similar to Africans too. according "Early West Asian" entailed Bronze Age Iran though Muslim er to Ishida 🔗https://www.commoncrowbooks.com/pages/books/H13739/jiro-ikeda/anthropological-studies-of-west-asia-ii-human-remains-from-the-tombs-in-dailaman-northern-iran-2 In another/update 2005 study which used more human population groups, Ishida Hanihara showed "EARLY IRAN/ISRAEL"(52) clustering with other West Asians "TURKEY/CYPRESS(51) and AFGHANISTAN/PAKISTAN(50).
🔗https://drive.google.com/file/d/1iREssT57SVAVBN3VYm2pQ_T588UTJpxh/view?usp=drive_link
🔗https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8850181/
A 2019 study showed genetic continuity with Iranians since several millennia, and all Iranian populations cluster together, but were heterogenous within a native Iranian cluster. Furthermore, Sub-Saharan Africans and admixed Afro-Americans, as well as East Asians showed large degrees of differentiation with ancient and modern Iranians. It also showed that modern Persians are direct descendants of ancient Persians (Achaemenids), alongside the linguistic and cultural evidences they noted: "the entire gene pool has remained largely unchanged over at least the past 5,000 years, but probably rather the past 10,000 years."
🔗https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8850181/
A 2019 study showed genetic continuity with Iranians since several millennia, and all Iranian populations cluster together, but were heterogenous within a native Iranian cluster. Furthermore, Sub-Saharan Africans and admixed Afro-Americans, as well as East Asians showed large degrees of differentiation with ancient and modern Iranians. It also showed that modern Persians are direct descendants of ancient Persians (Achaemenids), alongside the linguistic and cultural evidences they noted: "the entire gene pool has remained largely unchanged over at least the past 5,000 years, but probably rather the past 10,000 years."
🔗https://www.technologynetworks.com/genomics/news/large-genetics-study-finds-irans-population-is-highly-heterogeneous-324374
🔴Caananites (~2,500 BCE) (🧬N=7)
A study from 2017, sequenced 5 whole genomes from individuals from Sidon a Canaanite-city-state living 3,700 years ago in the Levant. The Y-DNA for two individuals was J1-P58, and the other J2-M12. In 2018, it was revealed that the Phoenician legacy and expansion across the Mediterranean is linked to these two paternal haplogroups. The mtDNA was N1a3a, Hv1b1, K1a2, R2, and H1bc. The auDNA analysis revealed that over 90% of Modern Lebanese DNA is from Canaanites. It also showed that the Canaanites are ancestral to todays Druze, Levantine Arabs (Jordanians and Palestinians), Jews and other populations from the region. "We show that present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population, which therefore implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least the Bronze Age.”
🔗Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences - ScienceDirect
🔗Living Descendants of Biblical Canaanites Identified Via DNA (nationalgeographic.com)
🔗A finely resolved phylogeny of Y chromosome Hg J illuminates the processes of Phoenician and Greek colonizations in the Mediterranean | Scientific Reports (nature.com)
A study that sequenced 73
🔗The Genomic History of the Bronze Age Southern Levant: Cell
🔗DNA from the Bible's Canaanites lives on in modern Arabs and Jews (nationalgeographic.com)
🔴Caananites (~2,500 BCE) (🧬N=7)
A study from 2017, sequenced 5 whole genomes from individuals from Sidon a Canaanite-city-state living 3,700 years ago in the Levant. The Y-DNA for two individuals was J1-P58, and the other J2-M12. In 2018, it was revealed that the Phoenician legacy and expansion across the Mediterranean is linked to these two paternal haplogroups. The mtDNA was N1a3a, Hv1b1, K1a2, R2, and H1bc. The auDNA analysis revealed that over 90% of Modern Lebanese DNA is from Canaanites. It also showed that the Canaanites are ancestral to todays Druze, Levantine Arabs (Jordanians and Palestinians), Jews and other populations from the region. "We show that present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population, which therefore implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least the Bronze Age.”
🔗Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences - ScienceDirect
🔗Living Descendants of Biblical Canaanites Identified Via DNA (nationalgeographic.com)
🔗A finely resolved phylogeny of Y chromosome Hg J illuminates the processes of Phoenician and Greek colonizations in the Mediterranean | Scientific Reports (nature.com)
A study that sequenced 73
🔗The Genomic History of the Bronze Age Southern Levant: Cell
🔗DNA from the Bible's Canaanites lives on in modern Arabs and Jews (nationalgeographic.com)
🔗https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/05/200528115829.htm
Phoenicians (~1,500 BCE)
Eugene Pittard in 1924, referenced and confirmed the works of Dr. Nicolucci, who stated that Phoenician skulls of the Bronze Age Levant were most similar to other Semites, especially modern Arabs and Jews. Pittard also cited Bertholon, who said the ideal Carthagian type was like the Bedouin Arabs in the region he compared them to, being reddish brown skinned, black hair and beards, and wavy and curly hair, with dark eyes and a straight nose soemtimes bulbous at the tip.
🔗Les races et l'histoire: introduction ethnologique à l'histoire - Eugène Pittard - Google Books
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🔗Ancient mitogenomes of Phoenicians from Sardinia and Lebanon: A story of settlement, integration, and female mobility - PMC (nih.gov)
Phoenicians (~1,500 BCE)
Eugene Pittard in 1924, referenced and confirmed the works of Dr. Nicolucci, who stated that Phoenician skulls of the Bronze Age Levant were most similar to other Semites, especially modern Arabs and Jews. Pittard also cited Bertholon, who said the ideal Carthagian type was like the Bedouin Arabs in the region he compared them to, being reddish brown skinned, black hair and beards, and wavy and curly hair, with dark eyes and a straight nose soemtimes bulbous at the tip.
🔗Les races et l'histoire: introduction ethnologique à l'histoire - Eugène Pittard - Google Books
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🔗Ancient mitogenomes of Phoenicians from Sardinia and Lebanon: A story of settlement, integration, and female mobility - PMC (nih.gov)
Israelite Kingdoms (~1000 BCE)
In 2009,
🔗https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2789407/
The Iron Age Biblical city of Lachish was said to have a diverse and multinational population of diverse geographic origins. The crania showed a great range of variation, with many falling into Egyptian and Nubian series.
🔗(PDF) An analysis of crania from Tell-Duweir using multiple discriminant functions | S. O. Keita - Academia.edu
A dental study from Lachish Palestine in 2012, found that Iron Age Lachish samples shared more affinities with Egyptians from Lisht, Giza and Naqada, as well as a close affinity with the Phoenician samples from Carthage, as well as Pharaonic era Nubians.
🔗KomaryFothi.indd (nhmus.hu)
🔗https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2789407/
The Iron Age Biblical city of Lachish was said to have a diverse and multinational population of diverse geographic origins. The crania showed a great range of variation, with many falling into Egyptian and Nubian series.
🔗(PDF) An analysis of crania from Tell-Duweir using multiple discriminant functions | S. O. Keita - Academia.edu
A dental study from Lachish Palestine in 2012, found that Iron Age Lachish samples shared more affinities with Egyptians from Lisht, Giza and Naqada, as well as a close affinity with the Phoenician samples from Carthage, as well as Pharaonic era Nubians.
🔗KomaryFothi.indd (nhmus.hu)
In 2023, DNA was extracted from 2 ancient Israelites
🔗In First, Archaeologists Extract DNA of Ancient Israelites - Archaeology - Haaretz.com
🔗In First, Archaeologists Extract DNA of Ancient Israelites - Archaeology - Haaretz.com
https://www.academia.edu/44710820/Meanwhile_in_Megiddo_Exploring_the_Araxian_Pedigree_of_Munye_der_Chazzan_into_the_Last_Glacial_Period_via_the_Patriarch_Abraham_and_Dzudzuana_the_Caveman
🔗https://racialreality.blogspot.com/2020/08/phoenicians-moors-caucasoid.html
Arab Civilizations of the Arabian Peninsula
🔴Sabeans (~1,500 BCE)
Himyarites (~500 BCE)
🔴Lihyan (~1,000 BCE)
Nabateans (~400 BCE)
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/paid-content-meeting-hinat?loggedin=true&rnd=1668825230328
🔴Lihyan (~1,000 BCE)
Nabateans (~400 BCE)
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/paid-content-meeting-hinat?loggedin=true&rnd=1668825230328
Indus-Valley Civilizations of South Asia
🔴Harrapan (~2,500 BCE)
Harappan genomes lacked Steppe Ancestry
🔴Elamites (~000 BCE)
Mesoamerican Civilizations of North and South America
🔴Andeans (~1,500 BCE)
Inca Empire
🔴Olmecs (~1,250 BCE) (🧬N=6)
In 2020, 6 individuals were analyzed and revealed mtDNA diversity that is similar to indigenous American Indian populations.
🔗Mitochondrial DNA Haplotypes in Pre-Hispanic Human Remains from Puyil Cave, Tabasco, Mexico | Human Migration: Biocultural Perspectives | Oxford Academic (oup.com)
🔗Ancient DNA Studies in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica - PMC (nih.gov)
Mayans
🔗Genetic Affiliation of Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Mayas Through Maternal Linage - PubMed (nih.gov)
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ajpa.24903
🔴Olmecs (~1,250 BCE) (🧬N=6)
In 2020, 6 individuals were analyzed and revealed mtDNA diversity that is similar to indigenous American Indian populations.
🔗Mitochondrial DNA Haplotypes in Pre-Hispanic Human Remains from Puyil Cave, Tabasco, Mexico | Human Migration: Biocultural Perspectives | Oxford Academic (oup.com)
🔗Ancient DNA Studies in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica - PMC (nih.gov)
Mayans
🔗Genetic Affiliation of Pre-Hispanic and Contemporary Mayas Through Maternal Linage - PubMed (nih.gov)
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ajpa.24903
Aztecs
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