Egypt Genetics! ✅
Salutations to all readers! Provided here are a long list of resources that deal with any specific studies and research materials that has been conducted on both ancient remains in Egypt, as well as all the relevant findings that have been conducted on the contemporary populations of the northern Nile Valley. It is a compilation of genetic as well as anthropological resources from various time periods.
Eugene Strouhal (1993) analyzed and studied a Middle Kingdom Official named Hwy'nh, a male of 40-50 years old, dated to the early 12th or 11th Dynasty. He was described as orthognathous, with a straight nasal bridge, the skull overall having Caucasoid craniometry. Khyuyankh, in terms of stature was resembling Africans, than Europeans.
Y-Chromosome Data
G. Lucotte and G. Mercier in 2003 analyzed the Y-chromosome haplotypes in Egypt by region. The 66 Upper Egyptians had 80.3% chromosomes with a Northern African origin and the 162 sampled Lower Egyptians had 64.8% of Northern African derived Y-Chromosomes. The 46 individuals inhabiting historic Lower Nubia (mix of Sa'idis and Nubians) had collectively 86.9% of Northern African associated Y-Chromosomes.
🔗Brief communication: Y‐chromosome haplotypes in Egypt - Lucotte - 2003 - American Journal of Physical Anthropology - Wiley Online Library
Arredi et al. (2004), discovered that most of the Y-chromosome variation that exists in North Africans, including Egyptians, was shaped during the Neolithic phases. The study also found that the 44 Lower Egyptians from the Nile Delta (Mansoura), had 51.3% E1b1b paternal chromosomes, 18.2% for J1, 9.9% for R1b-V88, and 2.3% for R1a.
🔗https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-predominantly-neolithic-origin-for-Y-chromosomal-Arredi-Poloni/3ab53e7257e2703d471dbe0f998d8e3f4fb0ffe4
List of Ancient DNA Findings:
In 2012, using the Whit Athey's haplogroup predictor, the 20th Dynasty mummies of Ramesses III and his son Pentawer were predicted to belong to Y-Chromosome Haplogroup E1b1a (E-M2), which confirmed a father-son relationship, as well as the minor similarities between the partial STR markers. However, entering Ramesses III's and Pentawer's incomplete STR data into newer programs like Nevgen haplogroup predictor, results in E1b1b (E-V22). White Athey's predictor has not been updated since 2011 🔗with numerous issues, and is less sophisticated than the new technologies. Even so, both predictions are in fact incomplete and in error without full high resolution SNPs (genome-wide-ancestry), because the data extracted was only miniscule for the Y-Chromosome. There is in general, not enough genomic information from such a partial extraction, ultimately meaning no result can be given with certainty, but these results are still presented here for record. Also, the commercial DNA company 🔗23andMe has him listed as the former based on this paper. There is a full explanation and visual guide of the limitations of such partial DNA analysis, all explained coherently by Biblical DNA (see his 🔗YouTube), in a video linked here: 🔗https://youtu.be/zlrQ33MtO7Q
🔗Revisiting the harem conspiracy and death of Ramesses III: anthropological, forensic, radiological, and genetic study - PubMed (nih.gov)
🔗94716_1.pdf (griffith.edu.au)
🔗Y-DNA Haplogroup Predictor - NEVGEN.ORG
*Important Notice: Some bad faith actors have also attempted to use limited and outdated genomic data focused on disease and genetic disorders to construct misleading, manipulative and dishonest conclusions. The information used by DNA Tribes and DNA Consultants way back in 2012 is only based on 8 STR loci markers that are specifically associated with diseases/infections and disorder alleles. All of which came from a Zahi Hawass/Albert Zink paper way back in 2010, that made medical analyses of 11 royal mummies of the New Kingdom, and to search for pathological features attributable to possible murder, consanguinity, inherited disorders, and infectious diseases. It is not whole-genome-sequencing, and the selected 8 loci alleles represent less than a tiny percentage (similarly uniparental haplogroups like Y-DNA and mtDNA are around 1% of the total human genome and cannot be used to gauge full ancestral affinities), and autosomal ancestry cannot be determined from it whatsoever. The data was not for finding ancestral ties or genetic links to modern populations in the first place, nor was it intended to, any claims made on these tiny alleles are fringe and completely false. Furthermore, even given 10 loci that are specifically focused (these were not) on actually determining ancestry, it still has a 🔗margin of error of 30%, or nearly one third (1/3) of the time (even using 15 identifier microsatellite loci are 🔗not informative markers for inference of ancestry, and even up to 23 DIP-STRs still can't for total auDNA). This is why the more thorough techniques and methods of whole-genome-sequencing (WGS, full genomes for Autosomal DNA) are used in contemporary population genetics and the most accurate, rather than playing around with fingerprinting STRs from obscure disease datasets which is over 20 years old. The now shutdown and defunct commercial company DNA Tribes who published the articles in their digest even has a major disclaimers: "This preliminary analysis based on eight STR markers does not identify the percentages of Sub-Saharan African ancestry for these ancient individuals. This preliminary analysis also does not exclude additional ancestral components (such as Near Eastern or Mediterranean related components) for these ancient pharaonic Egyptians." Also: "Future research that could confirm and expand on these findings could include SNP microarray based testing of Amarna and Ramesside mummies, which could potentially identify the percentages of Sub-Saharan African and other ancestral components for these ancient individuals. SNP based testing of other ancient individuals from the Bronze and Iron Age Mediterranean, Near East, and Africa could provide further insight about early population relationships and
migrations since this period." They clearly specified that that future studies using proper genome wide analyses (ie. peer reviewed genetic papers from laboratories that are experts in paleogenomics using SNPs), would clarify the actual origin of the ancient Egyptians.
Upon emailing the authors and founder of the company himself, they confirm that: "Thank you for your interest in the recent Digest article. The 8 STR loci tested do not allow a fine level admixture analysis to identify percentages of ancestry from world regions or continents. However, in this case available results indicate the Amarna mummies have inherited several alleles that are most frequent in African populations, which suggests some African ancestry (not necessarily excluding other ancestral components) for these ancient individuals. Best regards, Lucas Martin, DNA Tribes" & "Thank you for following up regarding your the recent Digest issue. The presence of some African specific alleles among the Amarna mummies does not necessarily exclude that ancient Egyptian populations were descended from multiple ancestral components (possibly including regional contacts related to modern populations of Egypt). These preliminary results only suggest that based on the 8 STR markers tested for the Amarna mummies, one of these ancestral components might have been indigenous to Africa. Best regards, Lucas Martin, DNA Tribes."
(Basically nowadays scientists in archaeogenetic fields never use STR to infer the genetic ancestry of a people with more precision based on their autosomes, a task that requires a much wider reach of genetic information fully sequenced from especially ancient DNA samples, 🔗full high resolution SNPs are proven to be superior. For comparison to drive the point home here, the Abusir-el-Meleq study and all others use solution enrichment for 1.2 million genome-wide SNPs, and obtained between 3,632 and 508,360 target SNPs per sample which is incredible, versus the miniscule 8 STR markers not even about gauging ancestry to begin with, 8 loci is not enough to even assign the specific Y-DNA and mtDNA haplogroup of an individual down to its most recent downstream subclades. STR is good for forensic analysis, but not inferring ancestry or origin, they are about different regions in DNA, while Single Nuclide Polymorphisms/SNPs determine autosomal admixture).
🔗Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun's Family | Congenital Defects | JAMA | JAMA Network
🔗dnatribes-digest-2012-01-01.pdf (thednatests.com)
🔗dnatribes-digest-2013-02-01.pdf (thednatests.com)
🔗(PDF) Identifications of Ancient Egyptian Royal Mummies from the 18th Dynasty Reconsidered (2016) | Michael Habicht - Academia.edu
Even worse, is the extraction of the data itself was exposed as fradulent by other scientists, whom reviewed: "Zink has stated that the tests did not get the same results each time they were run and the results reported in the JAMA paper are those the team adjudged "most likely" based on "majority rule" (Curse of the Pharaoh's DNA AWT Conference Review, Marchant; 2011). The same team (including Zink) that worked on the 2010 study also worked 2012 study 'Revisiting the harem conspiracy and death of Ramesses III: anthropological, forensic, radiological, and genetic study'.
🔗Ancient DNA: Curse of the Pharaoh's DNA | Nature
To finalize this issue, unfortunately the defunct 8 STR loci allele data from Zahi Hawass, was reused by Dr. Shormaka Keita and co. in a response to the first ever autosomal genetic extraction from Egyptian Mummies. The same problems apply, Keita used PopAffiliator, which usually needs 🔗multiplexes of 15-17 STR alleles specifically marked to determine the closest population affinities based on those alleles. The more STR regions that are tested in an individual the more discriminating the test becomes (and this only really works best for recent living or deceased samples, than ancient). The programme also only has three population groups to match to, 🔗Eurasia (which is solely a regional match for Europeans, not general), East-Asian, and Sub-Saharan African, excluding North Africa and the Near-East whom are not present in the system. Keita also admitted this was a single run, different data and algorithms might give different results. His analysis revealed that the majority of the samples: "have an affinity with sub-Saharan Africans in one affinity analysis, which does not mean that they lacked other affiliations-an important point that typological thinking obscures." He also added that: "The geographical regions affinities were defined according to popAffiliator8, we acknowledge there might be problems."
🔗https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00414-010-0472-2
🔗OSF Preprints | Ancient Egyptian Genomes from northern Egypt: Further discussion
🔗http://cracs.fc.up.pt/popaffiliator
🔗Ideas about “Race” in Nile Valley Histories: A Consideration of “Racial” Paradigms in Recent Presentations on Nile Valley Africa, from “Black Pharaohs” to Mummy Genomest - Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections (egyptianexpedition.org)
Moving on, according to a study published by Scheunemann et al. (2017), the mtDNA variation in 151 Ancient Egyptians from 1388 BCE-426 CE was showing 95% West Asian origin for the majority of the lineages, and with 5% originating from Sub-Saharan Africa. Conversely, Modern Egyptians had 80% West Asian associated maternal chromosomes, and 20% denoting Sub-Saharan African L clades. The Y-DNA of the three mummies who were also able to have their auDNA analyzed showed one individual belonging to E-V22, and the other two the Middle-Eastern J1, both paternal clades common in Egypt today. In terms of autosomal composition, the Sub-Saharan African ancestry in 135 Modern Egyptian samples from Abusir-el-Meleq ranged from 14-21%. In contrast, the 3 ancient Egyptian samples from the Roman Period, Late Period, and New Kingdom, had 6-15% Sub-Saharan African ancestry (depending on reference populations used). The study claimed that this represents an increase in the Sub-Saharan African component in Modern Egyptians occurring in post Roman times, and the Ancient Egyptians had more affinities to Near-Eastern populations due to this 8% difference in African ancestry. The results of this study also pointed to high level of genetic interaction with the Near-East since prehistoric times in the region of North Africa (Egypt). The nuclear DNA, PCA and admixture analysis proved conclusively that all three belonged to the same ethnic Egyptian population group. The data sets did not suggest a foreign origin, so the individuals can be considered to represent a local community profile. However, they clarified that all the data was from a single site in Lower/Middle Egypt at the Fayoum, and further sampling from other regions, especially in the south of Upper Egypt where the nation historically bordered Nubia, may give different results. They also noted that: "Genetic continuity between ancient and modern Egyptians cannot be ruled out despite this more recent sub-Saharan African influx, while continuity with modern Ethiopians is not supported." The HVR-I sequence data (population distance) points to Modern Egyptians as being the closest group to these ancient samples. Wolfgang Haak, group leader at the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History in Jena further commented saying: “The genetics of the Abusir el-Meleq community did not undergo any major shifts during the 1,300 year timespan we studied, suggesting that the population remained genetically relatively unaffected by foreign conquest and rule." Another researcher on the project, the geneticist and group leader Johanesse Krausse, would say when asked about what happened to the Ancient Egyptians based on the evidence: "Nothing really happened. It was very boring, apparently, all that conquering didn't significantly change the genetics of this Egyptian population-which, in itself, was unexpected. That was actually a bit of a surprise to us."
🔗Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods | Nature Communications
🔗The first genome data from ancient Egyptian mummies | Max-Planck-Gesellschaft (mpg.de)
🔗https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/ancient-mummies-finally-give-their-genetic-secrets-180963518/
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| Low Red Values Show Population Similarities, and Higher Blue Values Show Population Distances |
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| PCA Clustering and Admixture Analysis of the 3 Ancient Egyptians Sampled |
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| 2nd PCA Clustering Analysis and Complete Admixture Distribution |
An unpublished, follow-up study by Scheunemann & Urban et al. (2021) was carried out collecting samples from six excavation sites along the entire length of the Nile valley spanning 4000 years of Egyptian history. Samples from 17 mummies and 14 skeletal remains were collected, and high quality mitochondrial genomes were reconstructed from 10 individuals. According to the authors, the analyzed mitochondrial genomes were identical to the results from the 2017 study at Abusir el-Meleq. Also in 2021, Parabon Nanolabs recreated Egyptian mummy faces from the Ancient DNA based on data from Schuenemann et al. (2017) using genome sequencing and advanced bioinformatics. The samples were predicted to have a light brown complexion, with dark eyes and hair and no freckles, and that they had alleles for lighter skin.
🔗Abstract_Book_ISBA9_2022.pdf (sciencesconf.org)
🔗Parabon Recreates Egyptian Mummy Faces From Ancient DNA (globenewswire.com)
In 2018, the mummified head of Djehutynakht was analysed for mitochondrial DNA. Djehutynakht was the nomarch of the Hare nome in Upper Egypt during the 11th or 12th Dynasty in the early Middle Kingdom period, c. 2000 BCE. Two laboratories independently analysed Djehutynakht's DNA and found that he belonged to the mtDNA haplogroup U5b2b5. The study also pointed out that the ancient genomes and remains in Northern Africa in general, indicate a deep presence of Eurasian mitochondrial lineages which is well established in prehistoric and historic periods of the regions population history.
🔗Abstract_Book_ISBA9_2022.pdf (sciencesconf.org)
🔗Parabon Recreates Egyptian Mummy Faces From Ancient DNA (globenewswire.com)
In 2018, the mummified head of Djehutynakht was analysed for mitochondrial DNA. Djehutynakht was the nomarch of the Hare nome in Upper Egypt during the 11th or 12th Dynasty in the early Middle Kingdom period, c. 2000 BCE. Two laboratories independently analysed Djehutynakht's DNA and found that he belonged to the mtDNA haplogroup U5b2b5. The study also pointed out that the ancient genomes and remains in Northern Africa in general, indicate a deep presence of Eurasian mitochondrial lineages which is well established in prehistoric and historic periods of the regions population history.
🔗Biological Sexing of a 4000-Year-Old Egyptian Mummy Head to Assess the Potential of Nuclear DNA Recovery from the Most Damaged and Limited Forensic Specimens - PMC (nih.gov)
In the same year of 2018, samples were taken from Nakht-Ankh and his brother Khnum-Nakht, who were high status Ancient Egyptian priests from around the 12th Dynasty in Upper Egypt. They were half-brothers, and were morphologically distinct, one being Caucasoid and orthognathous and the other having Negroid affinities and prognathous, but both carried the East African derived M1a1 subclade which revealed they shared a mother, but had different fathers. In 2023, Nakht-Ankh's Y-DNA marker was revealed to be H2 according to FTDNA, and his autosomal results are available in the Global 25 database and genetic coordinates. He was modelled as 55% Levant Neolithic (Natufian/PPNB), 20% Anatolian Farmer (EEF), 10% Iran Neolithic, 10% Dinka/East African, and lastly 5% Caucasus Hunter Gatherer (G25 + Vahadua runs and other charts courtesy of Ygor Coelho, check his 🔗Quora for all things population genetics). On generated PCAs, he consistently clusters near all 3 samples from Abusir (ca. New Kingdom, Late Period and Hellenistic) (Schuenemann et al. 2017), and the 2 Ancient Egyptians from Lebanon (ca. 500 BCE) (Haber, Marc et al. 2020), as well as with Modern Egyptians. In terms of overall craniofacial criteria, Nakht-Ankh was more Northern Mediterranean, while Khnum-Nakht exhibited strong Black African characteristics.
🔗(PDF) Molecular confirmation of Schistosoma and family relationship in two ancient Egyptian mummies (researchgate.net)
In the same year of 2018, samples were taken from Nakht-Ankh and his brother Khnum-Nakht, who were high status Ancient Egyptian priests from around the 12th Dynasty in Upper Egypt. They were half-brothers, and were morphologically distinct, one being Caucasoid and orthognathous and the other having Negroid affinities and prognathous, but both carried the East African derived M1a1 subclade which revealed they shared a mother, but had different fathers. In 2023, Nakht-Ankh's Y-DNA marker was revealed to be H2 according to FTDNA, and his autosomal results are available in the Global 25 database and genetic coordinates. He was modelled as 55% Levant Neolithic (Natufian/PPNB), 20% Anatolian Farmer (EEF), 10% Iran Neolithic, 10% Dinka/East African, and lastly 5% Caucasus Hunter Gatherer (G25 + Vahadua runs and other charts courtesy of Ygor Coelho, check his 🔗Quora for all things population genetics). On generated PCAs, he consistently clusters near all 3 samples from Abusir (ca. New Kingdom, Late Period and Hellenistic) (Schuenemann et al. 2017), and the 2 Ancient Egyptians from Lebanon (ca. 500 BCE) (Haber, Marc et al. 2020), as well as with Modern Egyptians. In terms of overall craniofacial criteria, Nakht-Ankh was more Northern Mediterranean, while Khnum-Nakht exhibited strong Black African characteristics.
🔗(PDF) Molecular confirmation of Schistosoma and family relationship in two ancient Egyptian mummies (researchgate.net)
🔗The kinship of two 12th Dynasty mummies revealed by ancient DNA sequencing — Research Explorer The University of Manchester
🔗The kinship of two 12th Dynasty mummies revealed by ancient DNA sequencing (xn--c1acc6aafa1c.xn--p1ai)
🔗FamilyTreeDNA Discover - Y-DNA Haplogroup H-Z19008
Later, Zahi Hawass (2020), using sequencing techniques on 18th Dynasty Royal mummies found that Amenhotep III carried the Y-Chromosome R1b and mtDNA H2b, Tutankamun R1b and K, Akhenaten R1b and K, Tiye K, Yuya G2a and K, Thuya K. However, similarly to Ramesses III and Pentawer, these results were likewise based on White Athey's predictor, which means like the aforementioned study (Hawass et al. 2012), they should be subject to further analysis with higher SNP resolution for maximum accuracy, as it was sequenced still using the same 2010 outdated 8 STR loci data associated with sickness and not full autosomal ancestry utilizing thousands to millions of SNPs. Lastly, the Unknown Man previously thought to be Thutmosis I or Senenmut was given the Y-DNA L-M20, which is high in and found amongst South Asians. Gad, Yehia Z et al. (2021) simply restated these earlier results and studies, but they did not retest any of the mummies to acquire newly sampled data and whole-genome-sequencing for all these New Kingdom royals using much more accurate SNP analysis for wider coverage, these results therefore, including the previous report showing E1b1a, as stated before are all likely wrong. Yehia Z. Gad, said they would retest all those older New Kingdom mummies using high resolution SNPs, and whole genome sequencing (WGS and NGS, Next Generation Sequencing) which was newly acquired in their laboratory, as they acknowledge the technology to successfully extract Ancient DNA did not exist way back then, and the older outdated methods was all they had access to back in 2010-12.
🔗(PDF) Maternal and paternal lineages in King Tutankhamun’s family. (researchgate.net)
🔗Insights from ancient DNA analysis of Egyptian human mummies: clues to disease and kinship | Human Molecular Genetics | Oxford Academic (oup.com)
In 2020, a study on male child mummies from the Greco-Roman period originating in the Memphite or Luxor area, revealed that the mtDNA for one was T2c1a and the other HV. Identical or phylogenetically close derivatives of these lineages are present in both ancient and modern Egyptians, as well as among several present-day populations of the Near East and North Africa. The researchers noted that mtDNA alone is not enough to reach any precise conclusion about the origin of an individual, but the results are in accordance with an Egyptian origin. The ages of the two mummified corpses ranged from 11-15 years old, and 2-4 years old.
🔗Multidisciplinary investigation of two Egyptian child mummies curated at the University of Tartu Art Museum, Estonia (Late/Graeco-Roman Periods) - PMC (nih.gov)
Also in the year of 2020, the mummy of Takabuti was tested for mitochondrial DNA. Takabuti was a noblewoman from Thebes in Upper Egypt (Luxor) who lived during the 25th Dynasty c. 660 BC. Analysis of her DNA revealed that she belonged to the mtDNA haplogroup H4a1.
🔗The first reported case of the rare mitochondrial haplotype H4a1 in ancient Egypt - PMC (nih.gov)
In 2023, Genome-wide data was successfully recovered from a sample from Nuerat, dated to 2,868-2,492 BCE consistent with the 3rd-4th Dynasties of the Old Kingdom, Egypt. A combination of allele frequency-based analyses (PCA, Admixture, f-statistics, qpAdm) show a strong genetic affinity of this individual with Levantine Natufians. Compared with other genomes dated from the end of the Dynastic period (Third Intermediate Period) and present-day Egyptians, the Nuerat sample did not carry a Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer genetic component that started to spread across West Asia around 4,000 years ago (First Intermediate Period) and is widely spread in present-day populations. The presence of this component in Egypt is likely associated with admixture between local Egyptian populations and Bronze Age-related populations from West Asia. This admixture pattern might result from the dominance of Lower Egypt by Canaanite (Levantine) rulers during the Second Intermediate Period (ca. 1,650-1,550 BCE).
🔗Reconstructing past human genetic variation with ancient DNA: case studies from ancient Egypt and medieval Europe | LJMU Research Online
🔗Reconstructing past human genetic variation with ancient DNA: case studies from ancient Egypt and medieval Europe | LJMU Research Online (archive.org)
🔗The kinship of two 12th Dynasty mummies revealed by ancient DNA sequencing (xn--c1acc6aafa1c.xn--p1ai)
🔗FamilyTreeDNA Discover - Y-DNA Haplogroup H-Z19008
Later, Zahi Hawass (2020), using sequencing techniques on 18th Dynasty Royal mummies found that Amenhotep III carried the Y-Chromosome R1b and mtDNA H2b, Tutankamun R1b and K, Akhenaten R1b and K, Tiye K, Yuya G2a and K, Thuya K. However, similarly to Ramesses III and Pentawer, these results were likewise based on White Athey's predictor, which means like the aforementioned study (Hawass et al. 2012), they should be subject to further analysis with higher SNP resolution for maximum accuracy, as it was sequenced still using the same 2010 outdated 8 STR loci data associated with sickness and not full autosomal ancestry utilizing thousands to millions of SNPs. Lastly, the Unknown Man previously thought to be Thutmosis I or Senenmut was given the Y-DNA L-M20, which is high in and found amongst South Asians. Gad, Yehia Z et al. (2021) simply restated these earlier results and studies, but they did not retest any of the mummies to acquire newly sampled data and whole-genome-sequencing for all these New Kingdom royals using much more accurate SNP analysis for wider coverage, these results therefore, including the previous report showing E1b1a, as stated before are all likely wrong. Yehia Z. Gad, said they would retest all those older New Kingdom mummies using high resolution SNPs, and whole genome sequencing (WGS and NGS, Next Generation Sequencing) which was newly acquired in their laboratory, as they acknowledge the technology to successfully extract Ancient DNA did not exist way back then, and the older outdated methods was all they had access to back in 2010-12.
🔗(PDF) Maternal and paternal lineages in King Tutankhamun’s family. (researchgate.net)
🔗Insights from ancient DNA analysis of Egyptian human mummies: clues to disease and kinship | Human Molecular Genetics | Oxford Academic (oup.com)
In 2020, a study on male child mummies from the Greco-Roman period originating in the Memphite or Luxor area, revealed that the mtDNA for one was T2c1a and the other HV. Identical or phylogenetically close derivatives of these lineages are present in both ancient and modern Egyptians, as well as among several present-day populations of the Near East and North Africa. The researchers noted that mtDNA alone is not enough to reach any precise conclusion about the origin of an individual, but the results are in accordance with an Egyptian origin. The ages of the two mummified corpses ranged from 11-15 years old, and 2-4 years old.
🔗Multidisciplinary investigation of two Egyptian child mummies curated at the University of Tartu Art Museum, Estonia (Late/Graeco-Roman Periods) - PMC (nih.gov)
Also in the year of 2020, the mummy of Takabuti was tested for mitochondrial DNA. Takabuti was a noblewoman from Thebes in Upper Egypt (Luxor) who lived during the 25th Dynasty c. 660 BC. Analysis of her DNA revealed that she belonged to the mtDNA haplogroup H4a1.
🔗The first reported case of the rare mitochondrial haplotype H4a1 in ancient Egypt - PMC (nih.gov)
In 2023, Genome-wide data was successfully recovered from a sample from Nuerat, dated to 2,868-2,492 BCE consistent with the 3rd-4th Dynasties of the Old Kingdom, Egypt. A combination of allele frequency-based analyses (PCA, Admixture, f-statistics, qpAdm) show a strong genetic affinity of this individual with Levantine Natufians. Compared with other genomes dated from the end of the Dynastic period (Third Intermediate Period) and present-day Egyptians, the Nuerat sample did not carry a Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer genetic component that started to spread across West Asia around 4,000 years ago (First Intermediate Period) and is widely spread in present-day populations. The presence of this component in Egypt is likely associated with admixture between local Egyptian populations and Bronze Age-related populations from West Asia. This admixture pattern might result from the dominance of Lower Egypt by Canaanite (Levantine) rulers during the Second Intermediate Period (ca. 1,650-1,550 BCE).
🔗Reconstructing past human genetic variation with ancient DNA: case studies from ancient Egypt and medieval Europe | LJMU Research Online
🔗Reconstructing past human genetic variation with ancient DNA: case studies from ancient Egypt and medieval Europe | LJMU Research Online (archive.org)
Other Findings!
The mummy of Ramesses II was forensically tested in 1976 by Pierre-Fernand Ceccaldi, the chief forensic scientist at the Criminal Identification Laboratory of Paris. Ceccaldi and team had observed that the mummy had almost straight, but slightly wavy, red hair; and from these traits combined with the corpses cranial features and the studied fair skin pigmentation, he concluded that Ramesses II was of a "Berber type", according to Ceccaldi's overall analysis. Subsequent microscopic inspection of the roots of Ramesses II's hair proved that the king's hair originally was indeed originally red, which suggests that he may have come from a family of redheads. Other researchers noted that when it comes to the mummy, one can sometimes distinguish in places the natural color of the skin, white for example in the case of Ramses II. However, most of the mummies have a fully charred black appearance; this color comes either from a process of slow organic combustion, or from a bitumen/tar that hinders their examination with the naked eye and that probably came from Mesopotamia and Palestine
🔗Recherches sur les momies Ramsès II. | Semantic Scholar
🔗Bulletin de l'Académie nationale de médecine | 1987-01-06 | Gallica (bnf.fr)
🔗Egyptian Mummies: Unraveling the Secrets of an Ancient Art - Bob Brier - Google Books
🔗Ramesses: Egypt's Greatest Pharaoh - Joyce Tyldesley - Google Books
A study published in 1982 found that blood typing of dynastic mummies found ABO frequencies to be most similar to primarily modern Egyptians, and some also to Northern Haratin populations. ABO blood group distribution shows that the Egyptians form a sister group to North African populations including Berbers, Nubians and Canary Islanders. The blood type frequencies of ancient Egyptians showed no signs of differing significantly from that of present-day Egyptians. According to the authors, "the blood-group distribution obtained for Asiut, Gebelien and Aswan necropolis shows resemblances with the present population of Egypt and particularly with its more 'conservative' fraction (the Copts)."
🔗Survey on Paleoserological Studies (inist.fr)
Around the years from 1999-2000, a sampling was conducted on Gebelien mummies, and it was discovered that three had undergone an adaptation to Malaria, and carried mutations for sickle cell anemia.
🔗Use of the amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) in the study of HbS in predynastic Egyptian remains - PubMed (nih.gov)
🔗MALARIA IN ANCIENT EGYPT: PALEOIMMUNOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION ON PREDYNASTIC MUMMIFIED REMAINS (scielo.cl)
In 2001, Skin samples were taken from the abdomen of an Egyptian mummy in the West-Bank of Thebes in Upper Egypt by the German Institute of Archeology in Cairo. According to the preservation of material: "These sections showed particularly good tissue conservation. All in all, histologic detail of the tissues was preserved to a variable degree, but distinct cellular outlines were always lost. Although much of the epidermis had already parted from the dermis, the remaining epidermis was often well preserved although no nuclear details could be found. The basal epithelial cells were packed with melanin, as usually seen in specimen of negroid origin. In the dermis, the hair follicles, hair, and sebaceous and sweat glands were readily apparent. Blood vessels, but no red blood cells, and small peripheral nerves were identified unambiguously. The subcutaneous layer showed loose connective tissue fibers attached to the dermis, and fat cell remnants were observed." Something to note though, as 🔗G Szabo (1976) had pointed out years ago prior, in melanin content tests, that "light microscopy sections from a dark Mediterranean skin can be very similar to those from a Negroid skin, so it will be necessary to use finer techniques, like electron microscopy, and also examine the oral mucosa." A prior 🔗paper from 1975, showed that: "Tanning of human skin on exposure to ultraviolet light results from increased amounts of melanin within the epidermis."
The mummy of Ramesses II was forensically tested in 1976 by Pierre-Fernand Ceccaldi, the chief forensic scientist at the Criminal Identification Laboratory of Paris. Ceccaldi and team had observed that the mummy had almost straight, but slightly wavy, red hair; and from these traits combined with the corpses cranial features and the studied fair skin pigmentation, he concluded that Ramesses II was of a "Berber type", according to Ceccaldi's overall analysis. Subsequent microscopic inspection of the roots of Ramesses II's hair proved that the king's hair originally was indeed originally red, which suggests that he may have come from a family of redheads. Other researchers noted that when it comes to the mummy, one can sometimes distinguish in places the natural color of the skin, white for example in the case of Ramses II. However, most of the mummies have a fully charred black appearance; this color comes either from a process of slow organic combustion, or from a bitumen/tar that hinders their examination with the naked eye and that probably came from Mesopotamia and Palestine
🔗Recherches sur les momies Ramsès II. | Semantic Scholar
🔗Bulletin de l'Académie nationale de médecine | 1987-01-06 | Gallica (bnf.fr)
🔗Egyptian Mummies: Unraveling the Secrets of an Ancient Art - Bob Brier - Google Books
🔗Ramesses: Egypt's Greatest Pharaoh - Joyce Tyldesley - Google Books
A study published in 1982 found that blood typing of dynastic mummies found ABO frequencies to be most similar to primarily modern Egyptians, and some also to Northern Haratin populations. ABO blood group distribution shows that the Egyptians form a sister group to North African populations including Berbers, Nubians and Canary Islanders. The blood type frequencies of ancient Egyptians showed no signs of differing significantly from that of present-day Egyptians. According to the authors, "the blood-group distribution obtained for Asiut, Gebelien and Aswan necropolis shows resemblances with the present population of Egypt and particularly with its more 'conservative' fraction (the Copts)."
🔗Survey on Paleoserological Studies (inist.fr)
Around the years from 1999-2000, a sampling was conducted on Gebelien mummies, and it was discovered that three had undergone an adaptation to Malaria, and carried mutations for sickle cell anemia.
🔗Use of the amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) in the study of HbS in predynastic Egyptian remains - PubMed (nih.gov)
🔗MALARIA IN ANCIENT EGYPT: PALEOIMMUNOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION ON PREDYNASTIC MUMMIFIED REMAINS (scielo.cl)
In 2001, Skin samples were taken from the abdomen of an Egyptian mummy in the West-Bank of Thebes in Upper Egypt by the German Institute of Archeology in Cairo. According to the preservation of material: "These sections showed particularly good tissue conservation. All in all, histologic detail of the tissues was preserved to a variable degree, but distinct cellular outlines were always lost. Although much of the epidermis had already parted from the dermis, the remaining epidermis was often well preserved although no nuclear details could be found. The basal epithelial cells were packed with melanin, as usually seen in specimen of negroid origin. In the dermis, the hair follicles, hair, and sebaceous and sweat glands were readily apparent. Blood vessels, but no red blood cells, and small peripheral nerves were identified unambiguously. The subcutaneous layer showed loose connective tissue fibers attached to the dermis, and fat cell remnants were observed." Something to note though, as 🔗G Szabo (1976) had pointed out years ago prior, in melanin content tests, that "light microscopy sections from a dark Mediterranean skin can be very similar to those from a Negroid skin, so it will be necessary to use finer techniques, like electron microscopy, and also examine the oral mucosa." A prior 🔗paper from 1975, showed that: "Tanning of human skin on exposure to ultraviolet light results from increased amounts of melanin within the epidermis."
Another study by Haber, Marc et al. (2020) was conducted on 19 ancient samples from Lebanon. In the set of sequenced genomes from the region, two of the individuals who lived there around 500 BCE, did not cluster with their contemporary Lebanese population. The study used the same Egyptian samples from Scheunemann et al. (2017) to further test these individuals and their ancestral origins. One of the two was a female who formed a cluster with the 3 previously reported ancient Egyptian samples, and similarly, she shared majority of her ancestry with them. The other one was a young male who derived around ~70% of his ancestry from the Ancient Egyptian population related to the female and ~30% from a population related to the ancient Levantines. Further testing suggests that the woman was an Egyptian immigrant into the Levant, and the male was her son from a man who himself had both Egyptian and Lebanese related ancestries. The authors said further sampling of more genomes would discover if cross-cultural mixing like this was more common or an exception, and reveal how heterogenous the society actually was.
🔗A Genetic History of the Near East from an aDNA Time Course Sampling Eight Points in the Past 4,000 Years - PMC (nih.gov)
Once again in 2020, three mummies, dating from the 1st millennium BCE, from the Pushkin Museum of Arts collection were tested at the Kurchatov Institute of Moscow for mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal haplogroups. Two of the mummies were found to belong to the Y-chromosomal haplogroup R1b-M269, and the last one to Y-chromosome haplogroup E-V13.They also belonged to mtDNA haplogroups L3h1 and N5, common in Northern Africans and Middle Easterners, respectively. The third mummy was found to belong to mtDNA haplogroup N, widely distributed throughout Eurasia.
🔗Paleogenetic Study of Ancient Mummies at the Kurchatov Institute | Nanobiotechnology Reports (springer.com)
In 2023, a conference was held on an upcoming paper entitled 'Genetic study of ancient Egyptian human remains dating from the Predynastic Period to the early Islamic Period (ca. 4000 cal. BCE - 800 cal. CE).' It outlines that around 25 mtDNA samples were extracted from different historical eras, and from these, 7 whole genomes were able to be sequenced (auDNA, Y-DNA and mtDNA). The project duration began in 2021, and will continue until 2025. What is known is the mtDNA from this continued research, fully matched what was in the Abusir paper from 2017, with more findings to be released. It overall highlighted shared maternal ancestries with North Africans and Western Eurasian populations.
🔗PopGenCT Ancient Egypt Life and death in ancient Egypt – Computed ... (eurac.edu)
Other upcoming studies include, 'Insights into Ancient Egyptian Genomes from the 1st Millennium BCE' which sequenced 14 individuals recovered from Upper and Lower Egypt sites spanning around 900 years of ancient Egyptian history, from the Third Intermediate (~1060 BCE) to Roman periods. The study aims to characterize the major ancestry components for ancient Egyptians and to explore the genetic continuation and admixture through times and regions. Another is, 'Human Mitochondrial Haplogroups and Ancient DNA Preservation Across Egyptian History' which has sampled 18 mitochondrial genomes from various eras, and the last is named 'The Enigma of the Hyksos: An Ancient DNA Study', which will be studying the Second Intermediate Period (1640-1530 BCE).
Once again in 2020, three mummies, dating from the 1st millennium BCE, from the Pushkin Museum of Arts collection were tested at the Kurchatov Institute of Moscow for mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal haplogroups. Two of the mummies were found to belong to the Y-chromosomal haplogroup R1b-M269, and the last one to Y-chromosome haplogroup E-V13.They also belonged to mtDNA haplogroups L3h1 and N5, common in Northern Africans and Middle Easterners, respectively. The third mummy was found to belong to mtDNA haplogroup N, widely distributed throughout Eurasia.
🔗Paleogenetic Study of Ancient Mummies at the Kurchatov Institute | Nanobiotechnology Reports (springer.com)
In 2023, a conference was held on an upcoming paper entitled 'Genetic study of ancient Egyptian human remains dating from the Predynastic Period to the early Islamic Period (ca. 4000 cal. BCE - 800 cal. CE).' It outlines that around 25 mtDNA samples were extracted from different historical eras, and from these, 7 whole genomes were able to be sequenced (auDNA, Y-DNA and mtDNA). The project duration began in 2021, and will continue until 2025. What is known is the mtDNA from this continued research, fully matched what was in the Abusir paper from 2017, with more findings to be released. It overall highlighted shared maternal ancestries with North Africans and Western Eurasian populations.
🔗PopGenCT Ancient Egypt Life and death in ancient Egypt – Computed ... (eurac.edu)
Other upcoming studies include, 'Insights into Ancient Egyptian Genomes from the 1st Millennium BCE' which sequenced 14 individuals recovered from Upper and Lower Egypt sites spanning around 900 years of ancient Egyptian history, from the Third Intermediate (~1060 BCE) to Roman periods. The study aims to characterize the major ancestry components for ancient Egyptians and to explore the genetic continuation and admixture through times and regions. Another is, 'Human Mitochondrial Haplogroups and Ancient DNA Preservation Across Egyptian History' which has sampled 18 mitochondrial genomes from various eras, and the last is named 'The Enigma of the Hyksos: An Ancient DNA Study', which will be studying the Second Intermediate Period (1640-1530 BCE).
🔗https://isba9.sciencesconf.org/data/pages/Abstract_Book_ISBA9_2022.pdf
🔗https://submissions.e-a-a.org/eaa2022/repository/preview.php?Abstract=2459
Another coming bioarcheological study, is looking at the remains of two necropolises from the 4th-6th century CE in the Red Sea, at Berenike (Egypt).
🔗https://pcma.uw.edu.pl/en/2023/04/22/cultural-profiles-inhabitants-of-berenike/
In 2024, Yehia Z. Gad and cohort announced the 'Egypt Genome Project', which will sample 100,000 Modern Egyptians, and 200 Ancient Egyptian royal mummies originating from the 18th Dynasty to Greco-Roman periods (1550 BC - 395 AD). They will be creating the first African databank, with large datasets collected from ancient and living populations.
🔗https://www.nature.com/articles/s41588-024-01739-1
List of Ancient Bioanthropological Studies:
Craniometrics
Natural Scientist Frederick Falkenburger in 1947 ('La Composition Raciale de l'Ancienne Égypte'), based on a sample set of 1,800 prehistoric Egyptian crania, noted great heterogeneity amongst his samples. Falkenburger categorized them based on the nasal index, overall head and face form, taking into account width, eye socket structure, amongst other given indicators. He divided and characterized the skulls into four types: Cro-Magnon type (11%), "Negroid" type (36%), Mediterranean type (33%), and Mixed types (20%) resulting from the mixture of the aforementioned groups.
🔗https://submissions.e-a-a.org/eaa2022/repository/preview.php?Abstract=2459
Another coming bioarcheological study, is looking at the remains of two necropolises from the 4th-6th century CE in the Red Sea, at Berenike (Egypt).
🔗https://pcma.uw.edu.pl/en/2023/04/22/cultural-profiles-inhabitants-of-berenike/
In 2024, Yehia Z. Gad and cohort announced the 'Egypt Genome Project', which will sample 100,000 Modern Egyptians, and 200 Ancient Egyptian royal mummies originating from the 18th Dynasty to Greco-Roman periods (1550 BC - 395 AD). They will be creating the first African databank, with large datasets collected from ancient and living populations.
🔗https://www.nature.com/articles/s41588-024-01739-1
List of Ancient Bioanthropological Studies:
Craniometrics
Natural Scientist Frederick Falkenburger in 1947 ('La Composition Raciale de l'Ancienne Égypte'), based on a sample set of 1,800 prehistoric Egyptian crania, noted great heterogeneity amongst his samples. Falkenburger categorized them based on the nasal index, overall head and face form, taking into account width, eye socket structure, amongst other given indicators. He divided and characterized the skulls into four types: Cro-Magnon type (11%), "Negroid" type (36%), Mediterranean type (33%), and Mixed types (20%) resulting from the mixture of the aforementioned groups.
🔗https://journals.openedition.org/ema/643
Similarly, craniometrics of the Pre-Dynastic Badarians who were according to the physician and anthropologist Eugene Strouhal and many other sources (including a set of around 2,000 skulls), categorized as either Cro-Magnon (Mechtoid), Mediterranean, Negroid and Intermediate/Mixed.
Similarly, craniometrics of the Pre-Dynastic Badarians who were according to the physician and anthropologist Eugene Strouhal and many other sources (including a set of around 2,000 skulls), categorized as either Cro-Magnon (Mechtoid), Mediterranean, Negroid and Intermediate/Mixed.
In 1971, Eugene Strouhal came to the conclusion that the distribution of the Badarian skulls extends from the Europoid to Negroid range. Of the total 117 skulls, the majority of 94 skulls showed mixed Europoid-Negroid features. The share of both components was nearly the same, with some overweight to the Europoid side. He noted the Negroid component among the Badarians is anthropologically well based. Even though the share of 'pure' Negroes is small (6-8%), being half that of the Europoid forms (12.9%), the high majority of mixed forms (80.3%) suggests a long-lasting dispersion of Negroid genes in the population. Additionally, in some of the Badarian crania hair was preserved, in the first series they were curly in 6 cases, wavy in 33 cases and straight in 10 cases. They were black in 16 samples, dark brown in 11, brown in 12, light brown in 1, and grey in 11 cases. When it came to the Gebelien mummies, he had the chance to re-examine them, and said overall they also had some Negroid elements, but their incidence much less so than the Badarians. In 2007, Eugen Strouhal described the physical features of the early A-Group Nubians as "Caucasoid", which were "not distinguishable from the contemporary Predynastic Upper Egyptians of the Badarian and Nagadian cultures." Based also in reference to previous anthropological studies from 1975 and 1985. According to Strouhal, the Predynastic Egyptians seemed to be most similar to the Capsian Culture people of North Africa, and to the historical Berbers.
🔗Evidence of the Early Penetration of Negroes into Prehistoric Egypt on JSTOR
Strouhal_2007_p105-245.pdf (mzm.cz)
🔗puvodni.mzm.cz/Anthropologie/downloads/articles/2007/Strouhal_2007_p105-245.pdf
In 1972, skull series from the Tasian Culture were described as dolichophallic, with large developed skulls, and showed no trace of Negroid traits.
🔗ON THE CRANIOLOGICAL STUDY OF EGYPTIANS IN VARIOUS PERIODS on JSTOR
In 1980, James Harris and Edward F. Wente conducted X-ray examinations of New Kingdom crania and skeletal remains, they observed that: "Generally, the dentition of each New Kingdom pharaoh and queen represents a unique combination of dental characters, such as overbite, overjet, interincisal relationship, and molar relationship, which permits the identification of each mummy from the x-rays of the dentition alone. This observation is not surprising since the teeth or dentition remains one of the most formidable tools available to the forensic specialist. Dental-alveolar prognathism, an inherited trait which is normal for the Nubian people, ancient and modern, may be observed in pharaohs Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Siptah and Merenptah, and most of the queens of the Twenty-first Dynasty. Other royal mummies such as Seti I, Thutmose IV, and Amenhotep II had a very straight dental profile or large interincisal angles characteristic of North Mediterranean people or the Western world. In summary, then, the pharaohs and queens of the New Kingdom-a period of almost 500 years, were heterogeneous from the viewpoint of facial profile and dental occlusion." Some of these results would later prove to be subject to error by Dennis C. Forbes in 1999 with the use of CT scanning technologies (and later again in 2021 by radiologist Sahar N. Saleem who similarly used computed tomography), as the pervious researchers had only used a single X-Ray from one side. He noted, based on studying the mummies: "In the x-ray at left we can see the nasal bone and cheek area under the eye socket is not showing, it's like an empty space and when you compare the jaw shape to the CT scan you can see the x-ray lacks the accurate form." & "It shows that single x-rays are not reliable for analysis of the facial structure although quite good for head shape. If x-rays are used to show the skulls, you need additional x-rays at different angles if you want to clarify the facial structure. The CT scan uses multiple images that are combined by a computer to show a continuous solid structure and can also be set to do cross sectional slices. The CT scan clarifies the earlier ambiguities and missing parts of the decades earlier x-rays."
🔗Evidence of the Early Penetration of Negroes into Prehistoric Egypt on JSTOR
Strouhal_2007_p105-245.pdf (mzm.cz)
🔗puvodni.mzm.cz/Anthropologie/downloads/articles/2007/Strouhal_2007_p105-245.pdf
In 1972, skull series from the Tasian Culture were described as dolichophallic, with large developed skulls, and showed no trace of Negroid traits.
🔗ON THE CRANIOLOGICAL STUDY OF EGYPTIANS IN VARIOUS PERIODS on JSTOR
In 1980, James Harris and Edward F. Wente conducted X-ray examinations of New Kingdom crania and skeletal remains, they observed that: "Generally, the dentition of each New Kingdom pharaoh and queen represents a unique combination of dental characters, such as overbite, overjet, interincisal relationship, and molar relationship, which permits the identification of each mummy from the x-rays of the dentition alone. This observation is not surprising since the teeth or dentition remains one of the most formidable tools available to the forensic specialist. Dental-alveolar prognathism, an inherited trait which is normal for the Nubian people, ancient and modern, may be observed in pharaohs Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Siptah and Merenptah, and most of the queens of the Twenty-first Dynasty. Other royal mummies such as Seti I, Thutmose IV, and Amenhotep II had a very straight dental profile or large interincisal angles characteristic of North Mediterranean people or the Western world. In summary, then, the pharaohs and queens of the New Kingdom-a period of almost 500 years, were heterogeneous from the viewpoint of facial profile and dental occlusion." Some of these results would later prove to be subject to error by Dennis C. Forbes in 1999 with the use of CT scanning technologies (and later again in 2021 by radiologist Sahar N. Saleem who similarly used computed tomography), as the pervious researchers had only used a single X-Ray from one side. He noted, based on studying the mummies: "In the x-ray at left we can see the nasal bone and cheek area under the eye socket is not showing, it's like an empty space and when you compare the jaw shape to the CT scan you can see the x-ray lacks the accurate form." & "It shows that single x-rays are not reliable for analysis of the facial structure although quite good for head shape. If x-rays are used to show the skulls, you need additional x-rays at different angles if you want to clarify the facial structure. The CT scan uses multiple images that are combined by a computer to show a continuous solid structure and can also be set to do cross sectional slices. The CT scan clarifies the earlier ambiguities and missing parts of the decades earlier x-rays."
🔗http://www.kmtjournal.com/tombstm.htm
A study conducted in 1981, found that a series of 56 adult skulls from the 4th Dynasty to 6th Dynasty around the Giza period, found that there was no Negroid features in the cranioscopic and craniometric analysis in any of them, with strong sexual dimorphism between males and females. This studied population was homogenous, and a part of one group. Sexual Dimorphism according to many studies is also much 🔗lower in Sub-Saharan Africans than other human population groups.
🔗https://www.persee.fr/doc/bmsap_0037-8984_1981_num_8_3_3829
In 1988, researchers examined radiographs of 12 Egyptian royal mummies obtained by two of the authors (W.R. and J.E.H.) and that had never before been published. The reported radiographic findings in the 12 additional Royal family mummies of the New Kingdom through the Roman period (1570 BCE - 324 CE), concluded the individuals were Caucasian, and presumably Semitic, which was considered surprising by the anthropologists.
🔗Paleoradiologic evaluation of the Egyptian royal mummies | Skeletal Radiology (springer.com)
A book from 1989, by academic Alan K. Bowman, stated that based on skull analysis, the Faiyum Mummy portraits were concluded to be of native Egyptians of the Pharaonic era. Which was also later confirmed by dental analysis by Irish in 2006, being much closer to earlier Egyptians than Greeks, Romans or other European populations. This conclusion was seen again in 2009, by Joel D. Irish, where he noted: "Interestingly, Roman period Hawara in Lower Egypt seems not to have been composed of migrants-while there is a possibility that the dynastic occupation of Saqqara may have been (though see above)."
🔗Egypt After the Pharaohs 332 BC-AD 642: From Alexander to the Arab Conquest - Alan K. Bowman - Google Books
🔗https://www.academia.edu/24598466/Further_Analysis_of_the_Population_History_of_Ancient_Egyptians
From a paper entitled 'The Early Neolithic, Qarunian Burial from the Northern Fayum Desert (Egypt)', by Maciej Henneberg (1989), the researcher noted that the 8,000 year old female skull showed closest affinity to Wadi Halfa, modern Negroes and Australian aborigines being quite different from Epipalaeolithic materials of Northern Africa usually labelled as Mechta-Afalou (Paleo-Berber) or the later Proto-Mediterranean type (Capsian). The skull still had an intermediate position, being gracile, but possessing large teeth and heavy set jaws. Similar results would later be found by a short report from SOY Keita in 2021, showing affinities with the Qarunian skull and the Taita series.
A study conducted in 1981, found that a series of 56 adult skulls from the 4th Dynasty to 6th Dynasty around the Giza period, found that there was no Negroid features in the cranioscopic and craniometric analysis in any of them, with strong sexual dimorphism between males and females. This studied population was homogenous, and a part of one group. Sexual Dimorphism according to many studies is also much 🔗lower in Sub-Saharan Africans than other human population groups.
🔗https://www.persee.fr/doc/bmsap_0037-8984_1981_num_8_3_3829
In 1988, researchers examined radiographs of 12 Egyptian royal mummies obtained by two of the authors (W.R. and J.E.H.) and that had never before been published. The reported radiographic findings in the 12 additional Royal family mummies of the New Kingdom through the Roman period (1570 BCE - 324 CE), concluded the individuals were Caucasian, and presumably Semitic, which was considered surprising by the anthropologists.
🔗Paleoradiologic evaluation of the Egyptian royal mummies | Skeletal Radiology (springer.com)
A book from 1989, by academic Alan K. Bowman, stated that based on skull analysis, the Faiyum Mummy portraits were concluded to be of native Egyptians of the Pharaonic era. Which was also later confirmed by dental analysis by Irish in 2006, being much closer to earlier Egyptians than Greeks, Romans or other European populations. This conclusion was seen again in 2009, by Joel D. Irish, where he noted: "Interestingly, Roman period Hawara in Lower Egypt seems not to have been composed of migrants-while there is a possibility that the dynastic occupation of Saqqara may have been (though see above)."
🔗Egypt After the Pharaohs 332 BC-AD 642: From Alexander to the Arab Conquest - Alan K. Bowman - Google Books
🔗https://www.academia.edu/24598466/Further_Analysis_of_the_Population_History_of_Ancient_Egyptians
From a paper entitled 'The Early Neolithic, Qarunian Burial from the Northern Fayum Desert (Egypt)', by Maciej Henneberg (1989), the researcher noted that the 8,000 year old female skull showed closest affinity to Wadi Halfa, modern Negroes and Australian aborigines being quite different from Epipalaeolithic materials of Northern Africa usually labelled as Mechta-Afalou (Paleo-Berber) or the later Proto-Mediterranean type (Capsian). The skull still had an intermediate position, being gracile, but possessing large teeth and heavy set jaws. Similar results would later be found by a short report from SOY Keita in 2021, showing affinities with the Qarunian skull and the Taita series.
🔗https://books.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeum/reader/download/194/194-30-76484-1-10-20170112.pdf
🔗Epipalaeolithic & Neolithic Egypt – Novo Scriptorium
🔗(PDF) Title: Short Report: Morphometric Affinity of the Qarunian Early Egyptian Skull Explored With Fordisc 3.0 | S. O. Keita - Academia.edu
In 1989, Powell was comparing metric versus non-metric traits, and his results showed that when using 58 trait analysis, the Taita are distinct from all Egyptians, but when using 32, they are more remote to Giza and Sedment. Kerma is distinct from all other groups in the 58 trait sets and 32 trait set. In all four analysis, the similarity of Badari and Naqada are evident, and likewise with Giza and Naqada, Sedment, and Badari. Distinctiveness was shown to increase with the number of metrics/traits measured in an analysis.
🔗Metric versus non-metric skeletal traits : Which is the more reliable indicator of genetic distance? — University of Bristol
An anthropological report was conducted in 1992 by Alain Froment that measured traits like nasal index (narrow noses to broad noses), cranium width (narrow skulls to wide skulls), amongst other morphological indicators. When it came to the nasal analysis, it showed that Lower Egyptians were on the side of the Maghreb, and Upper Egyptians close to other parts of Africa. Both the Egyptian series were closer to each other, but distinct from Europe. The Egyptian and Nubian fossils filled an intermediate space, while the Middle-Eastern was in the European cluster, and differed somewhat from both. The conclusions of the skull analysis showed that, the Ancient Egyptians are distinguished from the Melano-Africans as well as from the Europeans and are located in exactly an intermediate position, close to the inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Levant, the Indus, the Nubians and the Somalians. When taking a different morphological criteria of both nasal and face widths into account, the Lower and Upper Egyptians were close to Desert Bedouins, while the Nubians closer to Indus Valley populations (Dravidians). The research was conducted on 384 skull set samples (with many subsets being pooled samples of hundreds of crania) from Egypt, Nubia, India, Maghreb, Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa. The authors summarized in the opening abstract that: "This representation of population distribution maps very closely onto their geographic location: on average, the Egyptian people is morphologically equidistant from Europe and Africa, populations being ranked: Southern Europe, Maghreb, Egypt, Nubia, Sub-Saharan Africa. Nile Valley inhabitants display a wide range of variation, some samples being very close to Europeans, others to Africans, as a consequence of a long process of mixing. Black populations of the Horn of Africa, such as those from Tigré and Somalia, fit well into Egyptian variations." Altogether, the anthropologists noted, these results revealed that the position of contemporary Egypt, in relation to all the neighboring populations, is similar to that of ancient Egypt.
🔗Origines du peuplement de l’Égypte ancienne : l’apport de l’anthropobiologie - Persée (persee.fr)
🔗Epipalaeolithic & Neolithic Egypt – Novo Scriptorium
🔗(PDF) Title: Short Report: Morphometric Affinity of the Qarunian Early Egyptian Skull Explored With Fordisc 3.0 | S. O. Keita - Academia.edu
In 1989, Powell was comparing metric versus non-metric traits, and his results showed that when using 58 trait analysis, the Taita are distinct from all Egyptians, but when using 32, they are more remote to Giza and Sedment. Kerma is distinct from all other groups in the 58 trait sets and 32 trait set. In all four analysis, the similarity of Badari and Naqada are evident, and likewise with Giza and Naqada, Sedment, and Badari. Distinctiveness was shown to increase with the number of metrics/traits measured in an analysis.
🔗Metric versus non-metric skeletal traits : Which is the more reliable indicator of genetic distance? — University of Bristol
An anthropological report was conducted in 1992 by Alain Froment that measured traits like nasal index (narrow noses to broad noses), cranium width (narrow skulls to wide skulls), amongst other morphological indicators. When it came to the nasal analysis, it showed that Lower Egyptians were on the side of the Maghreb, and Upper Egyptians close to other parts of Africa. Both the Egyptian series were closer to each other, but distinct from Europe. The Egyptian and Nubian fossils filled an intermediate space, while the Middle-Eastern was in the European cluster, and differed somewhat from both. The conclusions of the skull analysis showed that, the Ancient Egyptians are distinguished from the Melano-Africans as well as from the Europeans and are located in exactly an intermediate position, close to the inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Levant, the Indus, the Nubians and the Somalians. When taking a different morphological criteria of both nasal and face widths into account, the Lower and Upper Egyptians were close to Desert Bedouins, while the Nubians closer to Indus Valley populations (Dravidians). The research was conducted on 384 skull set samples (with many subsets being pooled samples of hundreds of crania) from Egypt, Nubia, India, Maghreb, Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa. The authors summarized in the opening abstract that: "This representation of population distribution maps very closely onto their geographic location: on average, the Egyptian people is morphologically equidistant from Europe and Africa, populations being ranked: Southern Europe, Maghreb, Egypt, Nubia, Sub-Saharan Africa. Nile Valley inhabitants display a wide range of variation, some samples being very close to Europeans, others to Africans, as a consequence of a long process of mixing. Black populations of the Horn of Africa, such as those from Tigré and Somalia, fit well into Egyptian variations." Altogether, the anthropologists noted, these results revealed that the position of contemporary Egypt, in relation to all the neighboring populations, is similar to that of ancient Egypt.
🔗Origines du peuplement de l’Égypte ancienne : l’apport de l’anthropobiologie - Persée (persee.fr)
 |
| Figure Based on Cranial and Nasal Measurements of Ancient Egyptians and Modern Populations |
🔗PHYSICAL FEATURES AND DISEASE OF A MIDDLE KINGDOM OFFICIAL on JSTOR
A craniofacial study by C. Loring Brace in 1993 concluded that based on the 8 regional clusters, the Predynastic Egyptians of Upper Egypt and the Late Dynastic Egyptians of Lower Egypt were most closely related to each other than to any other included groups. They also showed general ties with other Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations in North Africa, modern Europeans, Horn of Africa (Somalia) & Northern Sudan (Nubia), as well as Indian people, but less so with the other populations of Sub-Saharan Africa, Eastern Asia, Oceania, or the Americas. He summarized: "We conclude that the Egyptians have been in place since back in the Pleistocene and have been largely unaffected by neither invasions or migrations, as others have noted, Egyptians are Egyptians, and they were so in the past as well." Brace in his study also talks about the gradation in skin colour and limb ratios, and mentions that they are a response to long term adaptation to regions, as heat and related environmental stress and latitude are strongly correlated. An assessment of race from these clinal or clustering traits individually was noted to be useless on their own of such a biologically widely distributed population, with micro adaptive features being inadequate indicators of population relationships. Brace highlighted essentially, strictly using cranial and bone examination in such areas is needed on top of other analysis and criteria. C. Loring Brace finalized that this does not characterize in an unambiguous way the ethnicity, phenotype of the Egyptian culture or variations, and cannot determine the probable influx from the Near-East on a genetic basis. A full-scale biological assessment of the Ancient Egyptians has to include genetic relationships and traits.
🔗Clines and clusters versus “Race:” a test in ancient Egypt and the case of a death on the Nile - Brace - 1993 - American Journal of Physical Anthropology - Wiley Online Library
🔗Clines and clusters versus “Race:” a test in ancient Egypt and the case of a death on the Nile - Brace - 1993 - American Journal of Physical Anthropology - Wiley Online Library (PDF)
A 1990-1992 study conducted by S.O.Y. Keita on 1st Dynasty crania from the royal tombs in Abydos, concluded that the predominant pattern was "Southern" or a “tropical African variant” (though others were also observed), which had affinities with Kerma Kushites (Kushitic). The general results demonstrate greater affinity with Upper Nile Valley groups (56%), but also suggest clear change from earlier craniometric trends with numerous Dynasty I crania from Abydos classified into northern series (44%). The gene flow and movement of northern officials to the important southern city may explain the findings. These reported findings of diversity in the Abydos Dynasty I cranial patterns were also restated and confirmed in a 🔗follow up study he conducted. Keita describes the Northern and Southern patterns of the early Predynastic period as "northern-Egyptian-Maghreb" and "tropical African variant" (overlapping with Nubia/Kush) respectively. He shows that a progressive change in Upper Egypt toward the northern Egyptian pattern of Lower Egypt takes place through the predynastic period. The southern pattern continues to predominate in Abydos, Upper Egypt by the 1st Dynasty, but "lower Egyptian, North African, and European patterns are observed also, thus making for great diversity." In 2008, Keita found that the early predynastic groups in Southern Egypt which included Badarian skeletal samples, were similar to Nile-Valley material from areas to the south and north of Upper Egypt. Overall, based on the 9 variables, the dynastic Egyptians (includes both Upper and Lower Egyptians) showed much closer affinities with the included Northeast African populations than Europeans, who were more similar to Late Dynastic Egyptians. In his comparison to the various Egyptian series, Greeks, Somali/Horn, and Italians were used. He also concluded that more material was needed to make a firm conclusion about the relationship between the early Nile valley populations and later ancient Egyptians. Shormaka Keita explains in his 🔗2009 presentations, that when he is referring to "Southern" and "tropical" types, he generally means having characteristics and traits that are Somali-like.
A craniofacial study by C. Loring Brace in 1993 concluded that based on the 8 regional clusters, the Predynastic Egyptians of Upper Egypt and the Late Dynastic Egyptians of Lower Egypt were most closely related to each other than to any other included groups. They also showed general ties with other Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations in North Africa, modern Europeans, Horn of Africa (Somalia) & Northern Sudan (Nubia), as well as Indian people, but less so with the other populations of Sub-Saharan Africa, Eastern Asia, Oceania, or the Americas. He summarized: "We conclude that the Egyptians have been in place since back in the Pleistocene and have been largely unaffected by neither invasions or migrations, as others have noted, Egyptians are Egyptians, and they were so in the past as well." Brace in his study also talks about the gradation in skin colour and limb ratios, and mentions that they are a response to long term adaptation to regions, as heat and related environmental stress and latitude are strongly correlated. An assessment of race from these clinal or clustering traits individually was noted to be useless on their own of such a biologically widely distributed population, with micro adaptive features being inadequate indicators of population relationships. Brace highlighted essentially, strictly using cranial and bone examination in such areas is needed on top of other analysis and criteria. C. Loring Brace finalized that this does not characterize in an unambiguous way the ethnicity, phenotype of the Egyptian culture or variations, and cannot determine the probable influx from the Near-East on a genetic basis. A full-scale biological assessment of the Ancient Egyptians has to include genetic relationships and traits.
🔗Clines and clusters versus “Race:” a test in ancient Egypt and the case of a death on the Nile - Brace - 1993 - American Journal of Physical Anthropology - Wiley Online Library
🔗Clines and clusters versus “Race:” a test in ancient Egypt and the case of a death on the Nile - Brace - 1993 - American Journal of Physical Anthropology - Wiley Online Library (PDF)
 |
| 🔗Multidimensional Scaling Analysis of Cranial Samples |
🔗(PDF) Further studies of crania from ancient Northern Africa: An analysis of crania from First Dynasty Egyptian tombs, using multiple discriminant functions | S. O. Keita - Academia.edu
🔗(PDF) keita, boyce, temporal phenetic affinity in egyptian crania][1].pdf | S. O. Keita - Academia.edu
In 1996, 53 Naqada crania were measured and characterized by anthropologist SOY Keita. He concluded that 61-64% were classified as southern series (which shares closest affinities with Sudanese Nubian, Kerma Kushites, and the Somali series), while 36-41% were more similar to the northern Egyptian pattern (Coastal Maghrebi, with some European traits). In contrast, the set of Badarian crania were largely conforming to the Upper Egyptian-southern series at rates of 90-100%, with 9% possibly displaying northern affinities. This change is mainly attributed to the local migration along the Nile-Valley from northern Egyptians, and/or migration of Near-East populations, which lead to genetic exchange. The Middle Eastern series had some similarities with the early Southern Upper Egyptians and Nubians, which was considered by the researcher probably a reflection of their real presence to some degree, a consideration attested by archeological and historical sources.
🔗https://drive.google.com/file/d/1xsXsYehyGEha_8Qg2BRqnZRIfl4hEWKa/view
In the year 1998, in a Predynastic cemetery of HK43, the vast majority of hair samples were cynotrichous (Caucasian) type, which was a feature standard throughout dynastic times, as opposed to heliotrichous (Negroid).
🔗https://www.docdroid.net/0jFgxs9/ancient-egyptian-hair-fletcher-1995-pdf
🔗Nekhen '98 (hierakonpolis-online.org)
In 1999, a team characterized the skull of Prince Wadje, a 2000 BCE mummy as being Europoid, with characteristics that resemble ancient and present Berber populations.
🔗http://medialab.di.unipi.it/Project/Mummia/SIGGRAPH99/
In 2000, with the discovery of Khenemetneferhedjet II (Weret) the wife of Sensuret III, according to researchers, the tomb had been thoroughly plundered by the time it was first excavated. The Queen's mummy was completely ransacked for jewelry and badly damaged. Analysis of the body revealed Weret was left-handed and the sharp nasal sills indicated a 'Caucasoid' person. Overall, the remains revealed she lived a life of leisure, virtually free of all physical labor, and lived well into her seventies and was buried in a style befitting her royal status.
🔗THE REMAINS OF QUEEN WERET (scielo.cl)
Around the same year of 2000, Queen Tiye, and her parents Yuya and Thuya were characterized as displaying aquiline facial features and being fair, with Caucasian type hair.
🔗Chronicle of a Pharaoh: The Intimate Life of Amenhotep III - Joann Fletcher - Google Books
Grafton Elliot Smith (2000), described the corpse of Baqt, a royal daughter. He said her mandible conforms to a non-Egyptian alien type, which has been common in Lower Egypt since the times of the Ancient Empire. He recognized that it is also a type that is common in Upper Egyptian aristocracy as well.
🔗The Royal Mummies - G. Elliot Smith - Google Books
Hanihara Tsunehiko et al. (2003) in their cranial analysis of 70 human population groups and ancient remains, showed that the included Egyptians and Nubians (Naqada, Gizeh, Kerma and Nubia...etc), were clustering with European groups, and were collectively placed in a larger North African grouping. The Somalis and West Africans (Nigeria) were in a Sub-Saharan category and did not cluster near the North Africans or Europeans, and these samples within the Sub-Saharan set were morphologically distinct from the others and internally, with Hanihara commenting they had; "significant separation from other regions, as well as diversity among themselves."
🔗(PDF) Characterization of biological diversity through analysis of discrete cranial traits | Dodo S - Academia.edu
🔗(PDF) keita, boyce, temporal phenetic affinity in egyptian crania][1].pdf | S. O. Keita - Academia.edu
In 1996, 53 Naqada crania were measured and characterized by anthropologist SOY Keita. He concluded that 61-64% were classified as southern series (which shares closest affinities with Sudanese Nubian, Kerma Kushites, and the Somali series), while 36-41% were more similar to the northern Egyptian pattern (Coastal Maghrebi, with some European traits). In contrast, the set of Badarian crania were largely conforming to the Upper Egyptian-southern series at rates of 90-100%, with 9% possibly displaying northern affinities. This change is mainly attributed to the local migration along the Nile-Valley from northern Egyptians, and/or migration of Near-East populations, which lead to genetic exchange. The Middle Eastern series had some similarities with the early Southern Upper Egyptians and Nubians, which was considered by the researcher probably a reflection of their real presence to some degree, a consideration attested by archeological and historical sources.
🔗https://drive.google.com/file/d/1xsXsYehyGEha_8Qg2BRqnZRIfl4hEWKa/view
In the year 1998, in a Predynastic cemetery of HK43, the vast majority of hair samples were cynotrichous (Caucasian) type, which was a feature standard throughout dynastic times, as opposed to heliotrichous (Negroid).
🔗https://www.docdroid.net/0jFgxs9/ancient-egyptian-hair-fletcher-1995-pdf
🔗Nekhen '98 (hierakonpolis-online.org)
In 1999, a team characterized the skull of Prince Wadje, a 2000 BCE mummy as being Europoid, with characteristics that resemble ancient and present Berber populations.
🔗http://medialab.di.unipi.it/Project/Mummia/SIGGRAPH99/
In 2000, with the discovery of Khenemetneferhedjet II (Weret) the wife of Sensuret III, according to researchers, the tomb had been thoroughly plundered by the time it was first excavated. The Queen's mummy was completely ransacked for jewelry and badly damaged. Analysis of the body revealed Weret was left-handed and the sharp nasal sills indicated a 'Caucasoid' person. Overall, the remains revealed she lived a life of leisure, virtually free of all physical labor, and lived well into her seventies and was buried in a style befitting her royal status.
🔗THE REMAINS OF QUEEN WERET (scielo.cl)
Around the same year of 2000, Queen Tiye, and her parents Yuya and Thuya were characterized as displaying aquiline facial features and being fair, with Caucasian type hair.
🔗Chronicle of a Pharaoh: The Intimate Life of Amenhotep III - Joann Fletcher - Google Books
Grafton Elliot Smith (2000), described the corpse of Baqt, a royal daughter. He said her mandible conforms to a non-Egyptian alien type, which has been common in Lower Egypt since the times of the Ancient Empire. He recognized that it is also a type that is common in Upper Egyptian aristocracy as well.
🔗The Royal Mummies - G. Elliot Smith - Google Books
Hanihara Tsunehiko et al. (2003) in their cranial analysis of 70 human population groups and ancient remains, showed that the included Egyptians and Nubians (Naqada, Gizeh, Kerma and Nubia...etc), were clustering with European groups, and were collectively placed in a larger North African grouping. The Somalis and West Africans (Nigeria) were in a Sub-Saharan category and did not cluster near the North Africans or Europeans, and these samples within the Sub-Saharan set were morphologically distinct from the others and internally, with Hanihara commenting they had; "significant separation from other regions, as well as diversity among themselves."
🔗(PDF) Characterization of biological diversity through analysis of discrete cranial traits | Dodo S - Academia.edu
In 2003, the mummy of Nefertiti was stated that her particular skull type was visibly Indo-European, based on digital X-rays, and cranial analysis. They further indicated that making a judgement as to the
ancestry of a skull is difficult, as features found in Africans are also found in Europeans, and vice versa. In this case however, the overall morphology indicated belonging to the aforementioned. In the same year, all the family members buried in the the Tomb of Sennedjem, were said to belong to a small, slender, Mediterranean group of people.
🔗PP Forensic BMNov03 (oswego.edu)
🔗Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Archaeology - Google Books
In 2005, an Egyptian priestess of Karnak in Luxor, Tjentmutengbtiu daughter of Khnomenses and Mehenmutemhat. The woman was said to match more with West Asian (Iron Age Palestine) populations by morphometric analysis software, craniometry and her X-ray. Based on her iconography and coffin, she was also predicted more to be light skin, but brown and dark were also consideration, but less likely.
🔗(PDF) Virtual reconstruction and morphological analysis of the cranium of an ancient Egyptian mummy (researchgate.net)
🔗datastream (manchester.ac.uk)
In 2009, Kanya Godde noted that: “Comparisons of C-Group and Pan Grave Nubians to Badari and Hierakonpolis separate Badari from the other samples, indicating no biological affinities with these earlier Nubian groups." In 2018, Godde assessed population relationships in the Nile Valley by comparing crania from 18 Egyptian and Nubian groups, spanning from Lower Egypt to Lower Nubia across 7,400 years. Overall, the results showed that the Mesolithic Nubian sample had some similarity with later Egyptian and Nubian series. However, Nubian (Kerma) Late Dynastic Lower Egyptians (Gizeh), and Lisht, clustered with the Pre-Dynastic Egyptians (Badari and Naqada), and there was a north–south gradient in the data set. Kanya Godde (2020) would later analyse a series of crania, including two Egyptian (predynastic Badarian and Naqada series), a series of A-Group Nubians and a Bronze Age series from Lachish, Palestine. The two pre-dynastic series had strongest affinities, followed by closeness between the Naqada and the Nubian series. Furthermore, the Nubian A-Group plotted nearer to the Egyptians, and the Lachish sample placed more closely to Naqada than Badari. According to Godde the spatial-temporal model applied to the pattern of biological distances explains the more distant relationship of Badari to Lachish than Naqada to Lachish as gene flow will cause populations to become more similar over time.
🔗PP Forensic BMNov03 (oswego.edu)
🔗Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Archaeology - Google Books
In 2005, an Egyptian priestess of Karnak in Luxor, Tjentmutengbtiu daughter of Khnomenses and Mehenmutemhat. The woman was said to match more with West Asian (Iron Age Palestine) populations by morphometric analysis software, craniometry and her X-ray. Based on her iconography and coffin, she was also predicted more to be light skin, but brown and dark were also consideration, but less likely.
🔗(PDF) Virtual reconstruction and morphological analysis of the cranium of an ancient Egyptian mummy (researchgate.net)
🔗datastream (manchester.ac.uk)
In 2009, Kanya Godde noted that: “Comparisons of C-Group and Pan Grave Nubians to Badari and Hierakonpolis separate Badari from the other samples, indicating no biological affinities with these earlier Nubian groups." In 2018, Godde assessed population relationships in the Nile Valley by comparing crania from 18 Egyptian and Nubian groups, spanning from Lower Egypt to Lower Nubia across 7,400 years. Overall, the results showed that the Mesolithic Nubian sample had some similarity with later Egyptian and Nubian series. However, Nubian (Kerma) Late Dynastic Lower Egyptians (Gizeh), and Lisht, clustered with the Pre-Dynastic Egyptians (Badari and Naqada), and there was a north–south gradient in the data set. Kanya Godde (2020) would later analyse a series of crania, including two Egyptian (predynastic Badarian and Naqada series), a series of A-Group Nubians and a Bronze Age series from Lachish, Palestine. The two pre-dynastic series had strongest affinities, followed by closeness between the Naqada and the Nubian series. Furthermore, the Nubian A-Group plotted nearer to the Egyptians, and the Lachish sample placed more closely to Naqada than Badari. According to Godde the spatial-temporal model applied to the pattern of biological distances explains the more distant relationship of Badari to Lachish than Naqada to Lachish as gene flow will cause populations to become more similar over time.
🔗(PDF) An Examination of Nubian and Egyptian Biological Distance: Support for Biological Diffusion or In Situ Development? | Kanya Godde - Academia.edu
🔗A new analysis interpreting Nilotic relationships and peopling of the Nile Valley - ScienceDirect
🔗A new analysis interpreting Nilotic relationships and peopling of the Nile Valley - ScienceDirect
🔗https://www.academia.edu/113072753/A_new_analysis_interpreting_Nilotic_relationships_and_peopling_of_the_Nile_Valley?uc-sb-sw=90265314
🔗A biological perspective of the relationship between Egypt, Nubia, and the Near East during the Predynastic period | Request PDF (researchgate.net)
🔗A biological perspective of the relationship between Egypt, Nubia, and the Near East during the Predynastic period | Request PDF (researchgate.net)
In 2004, the prehistoric inhabitants of the Western Desert (in historic Lower Nubia) at Gebel Ramlah, contained individuals with Northern African and Sub-Saharan African traits, showing cranial and dental heterogeneity. According to the research, Gebel Ramlah was essentially a cultural crossroads for human populations originating both north and south of the Sahara, which likely allowed for regular gene flow between these Northern and Southern communities. In 2010, Joel D. Irish in studying Gebel Ramlah, showed that the dental and cranial morphological data consistently clustered Gebel Ramlah individuals as being most similar to other Lower Nubians and Ethiopians, however the Upper Egyptian comparisons fall closely behind and there are similarities and differences in both of these populations, with Gelbel Ramlah being generally 'intermediate' between Nubians and Upper Egyptians. When considering solely the dental analysis, all the Egyptian samples clustered with Mediterranean groups, even away from the admixed Nubians (including Gebel Ramlah). The overall craniometrics and other morphological indicators for Gebel-Ramlah, show these inhabitants were intermediate between Europeans and Sub-Saharans. It was also strongly considered that the later Nubian and Upper Egyptian populations both received geneflow from Gebel Ramlah or other related Neolithic groups.
🔗(PDF) Discovery of the first Neolithic cemetery in the Western Desert of Egypt (researchgate.net)
🔗(PDF) Gebel Ramlah: Final Neolithic Cemeteries from the Western Desert of Egypt. (researchgate.net)
🔗Gebel-Ramlah-Final-Neolithic-Cemeteries-from-the-Western-Desert-of-Egypt.pdf (researchgate.net)
🔗(PDF) Preservation poor—data rich: Bioarchaeology of the Neolithic peoples from Gebel Ramlah, Western Desert, Egypt (researchgate.net)
In 2005, three teams of scientists used CT scanning on the skull of the boy King Tutankhamun, he was identified as a Caucasoid North African, with a reconstruction based on this close affinity.
🔗Face-To-Face With King Tut - CBS News
In 2010, the skulls of New Kingdom royals were analyzed including for cephalic index, with Akhenaten and Tutankhamun having brachycephaly, and Thutmose II and Yuya being dolichophallic. The latter traits also being 🔗common in North Africa and Southern Europe, 🔗India, as well as other African populations.
🔗afanporsaber.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/Ancestry-and-Pathology-in-King-Tutankhamuns-Family.pdf
Sonia R. Zakrzewski in 2011, found that the previous curated crania was less prognathic than the recent ones excavated. The main reason was because previously samples were selected based on completeness rather than fragments. However, she assumed some ideals on Victorian notions of race may have played a minor secondary role as well.
🔗(PDF) Cranial variability and population diversity at Hierakonpolis (researchgate.net)
In 2013, 19 skulls from ancient Thebes in Egypt, dating from the 17th to 22nd dynasty were studied. 6 complete skulls, and 2 partial skulls exhibited some Negroid features, while 1 skull was markedly Europid.
🔗KomaryFothi.indd (nhmus.hu)
In 2014,the mummy of Padihershef who administered Thebes during the 25th Dynasty was reconstructed and had its cranial structure analyzed with CT scanning and 3D projected. The person was a male with Caucasoid features, and aged 20-30 years.
🔗(PDF) Elias J 2014 General Analysis of the Mummy of Padihershef at Massachusetts General Hospital. Akhmim Mummy Studies Consortium Research Paper 14-1. Carlisle, PA: AMSC Research LLC. | Jonathan Elias - Academia.edu
In 2015, cranial analysis of a ruling family from Elephantine Island, Aswan, at the border between Egypt and Nubia by Alejandro Jimenez-Serrano was conducted. He was surprised at the results, which were unexpected to him as they considered the Egyptian elites across the regions to have been Mediterranean type. The CT Scan of Shemai the Keeper of the Granary by the University Hospital of Aswan, found him to bear Negroid features, as well as another individual named Sarenput the House Overseer (not Sarenput II), with origins from likely in neighbouring Nubia. The papers found ethnic differences within the extended family, with Heqaib III in contrast being Mediterranean. The authors further explain that DNA analysis of the 14 members would provide a much better story as to the makeup of these people, but the Egyptian ministry of antiquities has not authorized such a study to date. He summarized that: "All indications are that the ruling family of the Twelfth Dynasty in Elephantine had negroid features, as Habachi had already suggested from the statues that he found in Elephantine." Furthermore, his overall research and findings revealed the heterogenous nature of this family, with other members like Setajeni A also having more Negroid features, while Setajeni V and Gaaut-Anuket had Mediterranean features. The burial chamber of priest Khema and other tombs in the Necropolis, were shown to be a mix of Negroid and Caucasoid Mediterranean types.
🔗(PDF) Gebel Ramlah: Final Neolithic Cemeteries from the Western Desert of Egypt. (researchgate.net)
🔗Gebel-Ramlah-Final-Neolithic-Cemeteries-from-the-Western-Desert-of-Egypt.pdf (researchgate.net)
🔗(PDF) Preservation poor—data rich: Bioarchaeology of the Neolithic peoples from Gebel Ramlah, Western Desert, Egypt (researchgate.net)
In 2005, three teams of scientists used CT scanning on the skull of the boy King Tutankhamun, he was identified as a Caucasoid North African, with a reconstruction based on this close affinity.
🔗Face-To-Face With King Tut - CBS News
In 2010, the skulls of New Kingdom royals were analyzed including for cephalic index, with Akhenaten and Tutankhamun having brachycephaly, and Thutmose II and Yuya being dolichophallic. The latter traits also being 🔗common in North Africa and Southern Europe, 🔗India, as well as other African populations.
🔗afanporsaber.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/Ancestry-and-Pathology-in-King-Tutankhamuns-Family.pdf
Sonia R. Zakrzewski in 2011, found that the previous curated crania was less prognathic than the recent ones excavated. The main reason was because previously samples were selected based on completeness rather than fragments. However, she assumed some ideals on Victorian notions of race may have played a minor secondary role as well.
🔗(PDF) Cranial variability and population diversity at Hierakonpolis (researchgate.net)
In 2013, 19 skulls from ancient Thebes in Egypt, dating from the 17th to 22nd dynasty were studied. 6 complete skulls, and 2 partial skulls exhibited some Negroid features, while 1 skull was markedly Europid.
🔗KomaryFothi.indd (nhmus.hu)
In 2014,the mummy of Padihershef who administered Thebes during the 25th Dynasty was reconstructed and had its cranial structure analyzed with CT scanning and 3D projected. The person was a male with Caucasoid features, and aged 20-30 years.
🔗(PDF) Elias J 2014 General Analysis of the Mummy of Padihershef at Massachusetts General Hospital. Akhmim Mummy Studies Consortium Research Paper 14-1. Carlisle, PA: AMSC Research LLC. | Jonathan Elias - Academia.edu
In 2015, cranial analysis of a ruling family from Elephantine Island, Aswan, at the border between Egypt and Nubia by Alejandro Jimenez-Serrano was conducted. He was surprised at the results, which were unexpected to him as they considered the Egyptian elites across the regions to have been Mediterranean type. The CT Scan of Shemai the Keeper of the Granary by the University Hospital of Aswan, found him to bear Negroid features, as well as another individual named Sarenput the House Overseer (not Sarenput II), with origins from likely in neighbouring Nubia. The papers found ethnic differences within the extended family, with Heqaib III in contrast being Mediterranean. The authors further explain that DNA analysis of the 14 members would provide a much better story as to the makeup of these people, but the Egyptian ministry of antiquities has not authorized such a study to date. He summarized that: "All indications are that the ruling family of the Twelfth Dynasty in Elephantine had negroid features, as Habachi had already suggested from the statues that he found in Elephantine." Furthermore, his overall research and findings revealed the heterogenous nature of this family, with other members like Setajeni A also having more Negroid features, while Setajeni V and Gaaut-Anuket had Mediterranean features. The burial chamber of priest Khema and other tombs in the Necropolis, were shown to be a mix of Negroid and Caucasoid Mediterranean types.
🔗(PDF) A unique Funerary Complex in Qubbet el-Hawa for Two Governors of the Late Twelfth Dynasty, in G. Miniaci & W. Grajetzki (eds.), The World of Middle Kingdom Egypt (2000-1550 BC) | Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano - Academia.edu
🔗(PDF) Sattjeni: Daughter, Wife and Mother of the Governors of Elephantine during the End of the Twelfth Dynasty, in Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde | Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano and Juan Sánchez-León - Academia.edu
Mummy of Ancient Egyptian Nobleman Discovered Along Nile River | Live Science
🔗(PDF) A Gynecological Treatment Found in Qubbet el-Hawa and Described in Different Papyri | Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano and Jose Manuel Alba Gómez - Academia.edu
🔗Le Premier Nome du sud de l'Égypte au Moyen Empire: Fouilles de la mission espagnole à Qoubbet el-Haoua (Assouan) 2008-2018 (fulcrum.org)
🔗Middle Kingdom Palace Culture and Its Echoes in the Provinces: Regional ... - Google Books
Additionally in 2015, an isolated mummified Egyptian head from the 20th-22nd Dynasty was analyzed. Ethnic affinities could not be determined, but the subject had pronounced maxillary prognathism.
🔗Revealing the Face of an Ancient Egyptian: Synthesis of Current and Traditional Approaches to Evidence‐Based Facial Approximation - Lindsay - 2015 - The Anatomical Record - Wiley Online Library
In 2016, the hair texture of 14 mummies from the 18th-25th Dynasty was said to be most similar to European type hair, in terms of overall character and thickness.
🔗https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1524/zaes.1977.104.jg.79b/html
The mummy of Nebiri in 2017 was analyzed using CT scanning technologies and modern forensics techniques. He was an 18th Dynasty dignitary, and between 45-60 when he passed. He had a very prominent nose, and tear shaped cavity and tower shaped nasal bones, which is in contrast to majority Negroid populations who have round and broad nasal cavities and small mastoids. He had large mastoids, and was overall with a morphology akin to Caucasoids.
🔗(PDF) Virtopsy shows a high status funerary treatment in an early 18th Dynasty non-royal individual | Tobias Houlton - Academia.edu
🔗(PDF) Sattjeni: Daughter, Wife and Mother of the Governors of Elephantine during the End of the Twelfth Dynasty, in Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde | Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano and Juan Sánchez-León - Academia.edu
Mummy of Ancient Egyptian Nobleman Discovered Along Nile River | Live Science
🔗(PDF) A Gynecological Treatment Found in Qubbet el-Hawa and Described in Different Papyri | Alejandro Jiménez-Serrano and Jose Manuel Alba Gómez - Academia.edu
🔗Le Premier Nome du sud de l'Égypte au Moyen Empire: Fouilles de la mission espagnole à Qoubbet el-Haoua (Assouan) 2008-2018 (fulcrum.org)
🔗Middle Kingdom Palace Culture and Its Echoes in the Provinces: Regional ... - Google Books
Additionally in 2015, an isolated mummified Egyptian head from the 20th-22nd Dynasty was analyzed. Ethnic affinities could not be determined, but the subject had pronounced maxillary prognathism.
🔗Revealing the Face of an Ancient Egyptian: Synthesis of Current and Traditional Approaches to Evidence‐Based Facial Approximation - Lindsay - 2015 - The Anatomical Record - Wiley Online Library
In 2016, the hair texture of 14 mummies from the 18th-25th Dynasty was said to be most similar to European type hair, in terms of overall character and thickness.
🔗https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1524/zaes.1977.104.jg.79b/html
The mummy of Nebiri in 2017 was analyzed using CT scanning technologies and modern forensics techniques. He was an 18th Dynasty dignitary, and between 45-60 when he passed. He had a very prominent nose, and tear shaped cavity and tower shaped nasal bones, which is in contrast to majority Negroid populations who have round and broad nasal cavities and small mastoids. He had large mastoids, and was overall with a morphology akin to Caucasoids.
🔗(PDF) Virtopsy shows a high status funerary treatment in an early 18th Dynasty non-royal individual | Tobias Houlton - Academia.edu
In 2019, non-elite burials of 4 individuals found Negroid features and some others were more aligned to the Caucasoid group amongst the various human remains.
🔗(PDF) Egyptian non-elite burials in a Middle Kingdom outdoor cemetery. The case of the Northern area of Qubbet el-Hawa (researchgate.net)
Another study in 2019, that used X-Ray and CT scanning on 9 mummies found that 8 were confirming to the Mediterranean anthropological type, while the 1 individual had traits not seen in the other groups, having very pronounced Sub-Saharan features.
🔗(PDF) A Multidisciplinary Study of Egyptian Mummies from the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts (Methodical Aspects | Sergey Vasilyev - Academia.edu
In the year 2021, populations of royals were analyzed, and the results overall as summarized by the abstract: "The origins of ancient Egyptian pharaohs are still unclear. Here we use non-invasive methods of craniometry to evaluate similarities of kings, royal females (queens, princesses and high priestesses), and members of the royal elite. Multivariate distances indicate morphological similarities of the royals to populations from the Mediterranean and Europe in addition to similarities the the Old Egyptian population. General Egyptian population during the Predynastic to the New Kingdom period underwent microevolutionary trend of Brachycephalisation. Since royals are even more Brachycephalic than the general population, their morphological similarities can be, besides the inbreeding, also the result of faster microevolution in situ, due to their much better living conditions."
🔗Cranial variation in Egyptian Pharaohs Ancestry or microevolution? Suggestions of family interrelations — Research @ Flinders
CT scanning in 2021 of Amenhotep I revealed that the prior X-ray examinations were very flawed, and that the Computed Tomograpy Scan is far superior and accurate. The older X-ray scan failed to render the full facial structure with no nasal index projecting whatsoever, and the jaw and ramus are completely undefined. This is why the paper on the newer CT scan noted: "The X-ray examinations of the mummy King Amenhotep I failed to provide consistent data or detailed information on the mummy." "In the plain X-ray examination, the three-dimensional (3D) information of the mummy is projected onto a two-dimensional X-ray film. The result is the superimposition of objects and bones which makes mummy characterization less satisfactory. CT is an advanced form of X-ray that obtains hundreds of thin sections (slices) of the body and provides more detailed reconstructed images of soft tissues as well as bones." The prior conclusions of the various morphological features by James Harrris and Edward F. Wente in their 1980 Atlas of Royal Mummies, are thus potentially inaccurate and subject to further discussion.
🔗Digital Unwrapping of the Mummy of King Amenhotep I (1525–1504 BC) Using CT - PMC (nih.gov)
Limb Ratios
Robins and Shute (1983), performed X-ray measurements on the physical proportions of select ancient Egyptian pharaohs from the 18th and 19th dynasties such as Thutmose III, Amenhotep III, Tutankhamun, Seti I and Ramesses II. The authors reported that the limbs of the pharaohs, like those of other Ancient Egyptians, had "Negroid characteristics", in that the distal segments were relatively long in comparison with the proximal segments. An exception was Ramesses II, who appears to have had short legs below the knees. According to Robins and Shute (1986) the average limb elongation ratios among these pre-dynastic ancient Egyptians (Upper Egyptians) is higher than that of modern African Americans who come from populations who reside much closer to the equator. Robins and Shute therefore characterized these pre-dynastic southern Egyptians to be "super-negroid" in limb ratios, but state that although the body plans of the ancient Egyptians were closer to those of modern negroes than for modern whites, they are quoted saying: "this does not mean that the ancient Egyptians were negroes." This statement was made because of their consideration to ancient Egyptian artworks, mummies and other iconography or statuary, which to them were of non-Negroids.
Another study in 2019, that used X-Ray and CT scanning on 9 mummies found that 8 were confirming to the Mediterranean anthropological type, while the 1 individual had traits not seen in the other groups, having very pronounced Sub-Saharan features.
🔗(PDF) A Multidisciplinary Study of Egyptian Mummies from the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts (Methodical Aspects | Sergey Vasilyev - Academia.edu
In the year 2021, populations of royals were analyzed, and the results overall as summarized by the abstract: "The origins of ancient Egyptian pharaohs are still unclear. Here we use non-invasive methods of craniometry to evaluate similarities of kings, royal females (queens, princesses and high priestesses), and members of the royal elite. Multivariate distances indicate morphological similarities of the royals to populations from the Mediterranean and Europe in addition to similarities the the Old Egyptian population. General Egyptian population during the Predynastic to the New Kingdom period underwent microevolutionary trend of Brachycephalisation. Since royals are even more Brachycephalic than the general population, their morphological similarities can be, besides the inbreeding, also the result of faster microevolution in situ, due to their much better living conditions."
🔗Cranial variation in Egyptian Pharaohs Ancestry or microevolution? Suggestions of family interrelations — Research @ Flinders
CT scanning in 2021 of Amenhotep I revealed that the prior X-ray examinations were very flawed, and that the Computed Tomograpy Scan is far superior and accurate. The older X-ray scan failed to render the full facial structure with no nasal index projecting whatsoever, and the jaw and ramus are completely undefined. This is why the paper on the newer CT scan noted: "The X-ray examinations of the mummy King Amenhotep I failed to provide consistent data or detailed information on the mummy." "In the plain X-ray examination, the three-dimensional (3D) information of the mummy is projected onto a two-dimensional X-ray film. The result is the superimposition of objects and bones which makes mummy characterization less satisfactory. CT is an advanced form of X-ray that obtains hundreds of thin sections (slices) of the body and provides more detailed reconstructed images of soft tissues as well as bones." The prior conclusions of the various morphological features by James Harrris and Edward F. Wente in their 1980 Atlas of Royal Mummies, are thus potentially inaccurate and subject to further discussion.
🔗Digital Unwrapping of the Mummy of King Amenhotep I (1525–1504 BC) Using CT - PMC (nih.gov)
Limb Ratios
Robins and Shute (1983), performed X-ray measurements on the physical proportions of select ancient Egyptian pharaohs from the 18th and 19th dynasties such as Thutmose III, Amenhotep III, Tutankhamun, Seti I and Ramesses II. The authors reported that the limbs of the pharaohs, like those of other Ancient Egyptians, had "Negroid characteristics", in that the distal segments were relatively long in comparison with the proximal segments. An exception was Ramesses II, who appears to have had short legs below the knees. According to Robins and Shute (1986) the average limb elongation ratios among these pre-dynastic ancient Egyptians (Upper Egyptians) is higher than that of modern African Americans who come from populations who reside much closer to the equator. Robins and Shute therefore characterized these pre-dynastic southern Egyptians to be "super-negroid" in limb ratios, but state that although the body plans of the ancient Egyptians were closer to those of modern negroes than for modern whites, they are quoted saying: "this does not mean that the ancient Egyptians were negroes." This statement was made because of their consideration to ancient Egyptian artworks, mummies and other iconography or statuary, which to them were of non-Negroids.
🔗(PDF) The physical proportions and living stature of New Kingdom pharaohs | Gay Robins - Academia.edu
🔗Predynastic egyptian stature and physical proportions | Human Evolution (springer.com)
C. Loring Brace (1993) had summarized that the elongation of the distal segments of the limbs is also clearly related to the dissipation of metabolically generated heat. Since heat stress and latitude are clearly interconnected, one would expect to find a correlation between the two sets of traits that are associated with adaptation to survival in areas of ambient temperature and limb proportions. Therefore, the term "super-negroid" could accurately be called "super-veddoid", as well as “super-carpentarian”, since distal limb elongation is apparent wherever people have been long-term residents of the tropics. He advises that the term “supertropical” would be better since it implies the results of selection associated with a given climate.
🔗https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Clines-and-clusters-versus-%E2%80%9CRace%3A%E2%80%9D-a-test-in-Egypt-Yaroch-Robb/98fce3ae89aed23a57af56e1890b49730cd70bc3
In 1999, Nancy C. Lovell noted that: "There is now a sufficient body of evidence from modern studies of skeletal remains to indicate that the ancient Egyptians, especially southern Egyptians, exhibited physical characteristics that are within the range of variation for ancient and modern indigenous peoples of the Sahara and tropical Africa. The distribution of population characteristics seems to follow a clinal pattern from south to north, which may be explained by natural selection as well as gene flow between neighboring populations. In general, the inhabitants of Upper Egypt and Nubia had the greatest biological affinity to people of the Sahara and more southerly areas. In contrast, reliable interpretations of the biological affinities of the people of Lower Egypt are currently hampered by a lack of well preserved skeletal material, largely due to agricultural and settlement encroachment on archaeological sites as well as the high water table, which interferes with excavation and preservation of archaic and earlier levels. Examinations of the biological relatedness of skeletal populations of Lower Egypt to those of other areas are needed, however, because they should determine whether the archaeological evidence for Egyptian contact with Syro-Palestine during the late Predynastic/Early Dynastic can be ascribed to trade relations or actual population movements. The archaeological and inscriptional evidence for contact suggests that gene flow between these areas was very likely."
🔗Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (archive.org)
In 2002, the breadth of pelvis and shoulders of Egyptian men was similar to that of modern Europeans. However, the pelvis of the women was narrower in proportion to shoulder girdle in the case of modern Women.
🔗Ancient Egyptian Medicine - John F. Nunn - Google Books
Sonia R. Zakrzewski (2003) studied skeletal samples from the Badarian period to the Middle Kingdom in Upper Egypt. Her raw data suggested that the Ancient Egyptians studied in general had "tropical body plans" (legs longer in proportion to the torso), and their proportions were "super-negroid" (as described by Robins and Shute), i.e. the limb indices are slightly relatively longer than African American populations. She proposed that the apparent development of an increasingly African body plan over time may also be due to the Nubian mercenaries being included in the Middle Kingdom samples, giving a more tropical (Nilotic) form than previous populations. Although, she noted that in spite of the differences in tibae lengths among the Badarian and Early Dynastic samples (Egyptians had shorter tibae in relation to femur, while Nubians have longer tibae in relation to femur), that all samples lie relatively clustered together as compared to the other populations, and changes were a result of environmental and social conditions. Zakrzewski concluded that "these results must remain provisional due to the relatively small sample sizes and the lack of skeletal material that cross-cuts all social and economic groups within each time period." She also found significant differences between stature and raw bone length between the early semipastoral populations and the intensive agricultural ones. Zakrzewski would again in 2007 examine the biological diversity found within a series of Predynastic skeletal populations from Middle and Upper Egypt. She found a significant change in the length of the distal limb segments through the Predynastic into the Early Dynastic period. She concluded that early Egyptian populations were not a homogeneous entity, but consisted of local groups with reasonably distinct identities. The EPD and Gebelien, OK, were significantly biologically distant from the MK, which was the presence of recognized Nubian mercenaries. She also concluded that the State formation process was not an entirely indigenous development, but rather that other groups from elsewhere along the Egyptian Nile Valley as well as from other nearby regions also inter-married with the original Egyptian population.
🔗core.ac.uk/download/pdf/33363.pdf
🔗(PDF) Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state | Sonia Zakrzewski - Academia.edu
Professor Barry J. Kemp (2007), who managed to survey a small sample size of the pre-dynastic populations of northern Egypt, in comparison to Palestine to the north and Sudan series to the south, grouped them more with other Nile Valley populations (Elephantine) than those of Byblos in the Levant, based on the criteria of limb ratios. He stated that the results showed, "the limb-length proportions of males from Egyptians sites group them with Africans rather than Europeans." In contrast to this, the Middle Kingdom samples from the northeast Nile Delta, have limb characteristics that group them much more with populations from the Near-East, than the population of Elephantine Island. Though he noted that male and females from all periods showed differences to each other in limb proportion. He also said skeletal preservation in the north of Egypt from these early pre-dynastic periods is always much poorer, because of sediment and Nile River deposits, and stated more population data from the region was needed.
🔗Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization - Barry J. Kemp - Google Books
A 2008 study by Michelle H. Raxter compared ancient Egyptian osteology from Pre-Dynastic to Coptic Period, to that of African-Americans and White Americans, and found that "although ancient Egyptians are closer in body proportion to modern American Blacks than they are to American Whites, proportions in Blacks and Egyptians are not identical." Raxter (2011) noted in his research that Ancient Egyptians as a whole generally exhibit intermediate body breadths (but more than northern latitude groups) relative to higher and lower latitude populations, with Lower Egyptians possessing wider body breadths, as well as lower brachial and crural indices, compared to Upper Egyptians and Upper Nubians. Nubians in general possessed more tropical leg proportions (longer tibae in relation to femur) than Egyptians, since they occupied a latitude further south and closer to Sub-Saharan Africa. Both Egyptians and Nubians though, possessed generally tropically adapted upper limb proportions. For crural indices, Nubians and Upper Egyptians had longer limbs than Northern or Southern Europeans, attributed to the different climate region in Northeast Africa. He further explained that; "this may suggest that Egyptians are closely related to circum-Mediterranean and/or Near Eastern groups, but developed limb length proportions more suited to their present very hot environments. These results may also reflect the greater plasticity of limb length compared to body breadth." Nonetheless, Raxter acknowledges that although the study has larger samples than all previous reports so far, it could have benefited from more data from particular periods and sites. Additional measurements from both Early and Late Predynastic groups would allow a closer examination of biological changes for instance, with the transition to agriculture from pastoralism or hunter-gathering lifestyles.
🔗Predynastic egyptian stature and physical proportions | Human Evolution (springer.com)
C. Loring Brace (1993) had summarized that the elongation of the distal segments of the limbs is also clearly related to the dissipation of metabolically generated heat. Since heat stress and latitude are clearly interconnected, one would expect to find a correlation between the two sets of traits that are associated with adaptation to survival in areas of ambient temperature and limb proportions. Therefore, the term "super-negroid" could accurately be called "super-veddoid", as well as “super-carpentarian”, since distal limb elongation is apparent wherever people have been long-term residents of the tropics. He advises that the term “supertropical” would be better since it implies the results of selection associated with a given climate.
🔗https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Clines-and-clusters-versus-%E2%80%9CRace%3A%E2%80%9D-a-test-in-Egypt-Yaroch-Robb/98fce3ae89aed23a57af56e1890b49730cd70bc3
In 1999, Nancy C. Lovell noted that: "There is now a sufficient body of evidence from modern studies of skeletal remains to indicate that the ancient Egyptians, especially southern Egyptians, exhibited physical characteristics that are within the range of variation for ancient and modern indigenous peoples of the Sahara and tropical Africa. The distribution of population characteristics seems to follow a clinal pattern from south to north, which may be explained by natural selection as well as gene flow between neighboring populations. In general, the inhabitants of Upper Egypt and Nubia had the greatest biological affinity to people of the Sahara and more southerly areas. In contrast, reliable interpretations of the biological affinities of the people of Lower Egypt are currently hampered by a lack of well preserved skeletal material, largely due to agricultural and settlement encroachment on archaeological sites as well as the high water table, which interferes with excavation and preservation of archaic and earlier levels. Examinations of the biological relatedness of skeletal populations of Lower Egypt to those of other areas are needed, however, because they should determine whether the archaeological evidence for Egyptian contact with Syro-Palestine during the late Predynastic/Early Dynastic can be ascribed to trade relations or actual population movements. The archaeological and inscriptional evidence for contact suggests that gene flow between these areas was very likely."
🔗Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (archive.org)
In 2002, the breadth of pelvis and shoulders of Egyptian men was similar to that of modern Europeans. However, the pelvis of the women was narrower in proportion to shoulder girdle in the case of modern Women.
🔗Ancient Egyptian Medicine - John F. Nunn - Google Books
Sonia R. Zakrzewski (2003) studied skeletal samples from the Badarian period to the Middle Kingdom in Upper Egypt. Her raw data suggested that the Ancient Egyptians studied in general had "tropical body plans" (legs longer in proportion to the torso), and their proportions were "super-negroid" (as described by Robins and Shute), i.e. the limb indices are slightly relatively longer than African American populations. She proposed that the apparent development of an increasingly African body plan over time may also be due to the Nubian mercenaries being included in the Middle Kingdom samples, giving a more tropical (Nilotic) form than previous populations. Although, she noted that in spite of the differences in tibae lengths among the Badarian and Early Dynastic samples (Egyptians had shorter tibae in relation to femur, while Nubians have longer tibae in relation to femur), that all samples lie relatively clustered together as compared to the other populations, and changes were a result of environmental and social conditions. Zakrzewski concluded that "these results must remain provisional due to the relatively small sample sizes and the lack of skeletal material that cross-cuts all social and economic groups within each time period." She also found significant differences between stature and raw bone length between the early semipastoral populations and the intensive agricultural ones. Zakrzewski would again in 2007 examine the biological diversity found within a series of Predynastic skeletal populations from Middle and Upper Egypt. She found a significant change in the length of the distal limb segments through the Predynastic into the Early Dynastic period. She concluded that early Egyptian populations were not a homogeneous entity, but consisted of local groups with reasonably distinct identities. The EPD and Gebelien, OK, were significantly biologically distant from the MK, which was the presence of recognized Nubian mercenaries. She also concluded that the State formation process was not an entirely indigenous development, but rather that other groups from elsewhere along the Egyptian Nile Valley as well as from other nearby regions also inter-married with the original Egyptian population.
🔗core.ac.uk/download/pdf/33363.pdf
🔗(PDF) Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state | Sonia Zakrzewski - Academia.edu
Professor Barry J. Kemp (2007), who managed to survey a small sample size of the pre-dynastic populations of northern Egypt, in comparison to Palestine to the north and Sudan series to the south, grouped them more with other Nile Valley populations (Elephantine) than those of Byblos in the Levant, based on the criteria of limb ratios. He stated that the results showed, "the limb-length proportions of males from Egyptians sites group them with Africans rather than Europeans." In contrast to this, the Middle Kingdom samples from the northeast Nile Delta, have limb characteristics that group them much more with populations from the Near-East, than the population of Elephantine Island. Though he noted that male and females from all periods showed differences to each other in limb proportion. He also said skeletal preservation in the north of Egypt from these early pre-dynastic periods is always much poorer, because of sediment and Nile River deposits, and stated more population data from the region was needed.
🔗Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization - Barry J. Kemp - Google Books
A 2008 study by Michelle H. Raxter compared ancient Egyptian osteology from Pre-Dynastic to Coptic Period, to that of African-Americans and White Americans, and found that "although ancient Egyptians are closer in body proportion to modern American Blacks than they are to American Whites, proportions in Blacks and Egyptians are not identical." Raxter (2011) noted in his research that Ancient Egyptians as a whole generally exhibit intermediate body breadths (but more than northern latitude groups) relative to higher and lower latitude populations, with Lower Egyptians possessing wider body breadths, as well as lower brachial and crural indices, compared to Upper Egyptians and Upper Nubians. Nubians in general possessed more tropical leg proportions (longer tibae in relation to femur) than Egyptians, since they occupied a latitude further south and closer to Sub-Saharan Africa. Both Egyptians and Nubians though, possessed generally tropically adapted upper limb proportions. For crural indices, Nubians and Upper Egyptians had longer limbs than Northern or Southern Europeans, attributed to the different climate region in Northeast Africa. He further explained that; "this may suggest that Egyptians are closely related to circum-Mediterranean and/or Near Eastern groups, but developed limb length proportions more suited to their present very hot environments. These results may also reflect the greater plasticity of limb length compared to body breadth." Nonetheless, Raxter acknowledges that although the study has larger samples than all previous reports so far, it could have benefited from more data from particular periods and sites. Additional measurements from both Early and Late Predynastic groups would allow a closer examination of biological changes for instance, with the transition to agriculture from pastoralism or hunter-gathering lifestyles.
🔗(PDF) Stature estimation in ancient Egyptians: A new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of stature | Michelle Raxter - Academia.edu
🔗Egyptian Body Size: A Regional and Worldwide Comparison (usf.edu)
A 2014 study by Bleuze examined skeletal samples from a Kellis 2 cemetery which was occupied during the Late Ptolemaic through Roman periods and found the brachial and crural indices of the Kellis 2 samples were not significantly different from the Egyptian, Upper Nubians and Lower Nubian samples. Although, the authors cautioned that "the high intralimb indices and greater body mass relative to stature in the Kellis 2 sample suggest that generalized terms to categorize Egyptians, such as “tropical,” “Negroid,” and “super-Negroid” may be grossly inaccurate, and may additionally obscure localized adaptations within larger geographical areas." The body shape and intralimb proportions cannot be generalized as what was characterized by Robins and Shute. The Egyptian body mass relative to stature was greater than they expected, and does not fit the "tropically adapted" scheme.
🔗(PDF) An Exploration of Adult Body Shape and Limb Proportions at Kellis 2, Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt (researchgate.net)
Emily J. Marlow in 2016 in studying sex estimation of Egyptian remains, discovered that: "When applied to ancient Egyptian skeletal remains, the ‘White’ univariate equations of the former method were found to produce higher consistency rates than the ‘Black’ equations, both in total and in males. In females, the ‘Black’ equations for proximal epiphyseal breadth (PEB) but not distal epiphyseal breadth (DEB) were found to be more accurate; the equation for the latter produced equal consistency rates in females. A similar pattern was observed using the multivariate equations of the tibia method. The ‘White’ equations were more accurate than the ‘Black’ equations, both in total and in males, for all functions excluding Function 4. In females, the consistency rates obtained using the equations for ‘Black’ and ‘White’ populations were equal for all functions excluding Function 9, where the consistency rates using the ‘Black’ equations were greater than those using the ‘White’ Metric sex estimation of ancient Egyptian skeletons I 17 equations. In comparison, the consistency rates obtained from the humeral head diameter (HHD) method were greater using the ‘Black’ compared with the ‘White’ equation, both in total and in males separately. The female consistency rates using the two different equations were equal."
🔗Metric sex estimation of ancient Egyptian skeletal remains, Part I: Testing of published methods (uw.edu.pl)
🔗(PDF) Metric sex estimation of ancient egyptian skeletal remains: Part II: Testing of new population-specific methods (researchgate.net)
🔗Egyptian Body Size: A Regional and Worldwide Comparison (usf.edu)
A 2014 study by Bleuze examined skeletal samples from a Kellis 2 cemetery which was occupied during the Late Ptolemaic through Roman periods and found the brachial and crural indices of the Kellis 2 samples were not significantly different from the Egyptian, Upper Nubians and Lower Nubian samples. Although, the authors cautioned that "the high intralimb indices and greater body mass relative to stature in the Kellis 2 sample suggest that generalized terms to categorize Egyptians, such as “tropical,” “Negroid,” and “super-Negroid” may be grossly inaccurate, and may additionally obscure localized adaptations within larger geographical areas." The body shape and intralimb proportions cannot be generalized as what was characterized by Robins and Shute. The Egyptian body mass relative to stature was greater than they expected, and does not fit the "tropically adapted" scheme.
🔗(PDF) An Exploration of Adult Body Shape and Limb Proportions at Kellis 2, Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt (researchgate.net)
Emily J. Marlow in 2016 in studying sex estimation of Egyptian remains, discovered that: "When applied to ancient Egyptian skeletal remains, the ‘White’ univariate equations of the former method were found to produce higher consistency rates than the ‘Black’ equations, both in total and in males. In females, the ‘Black’ equations for proximal epiphyseal breadth (PEB) but not distal epiphyseal breadth (DEB) were found to be more accurate; the equation for the latter produced equal consistency rates in females. A similar pattern was observed using the multivariate equations of the tibia method. The ‘White’ equations were more accurate than the ‘Black’ equations, both in total and in males, for all functions excluding Function 4. In females, the consistency rates obtained using the equations for ‘Black’ and ‘White’ populations were equal for all functions excluding Function 9, where the consistency rates using the ‘Black’ equations were greater than those using the ‘White’ Metric sex estimation of ancient Egyptian skeletons I 17 equations. In comparison, the consistency rates obtained from the humeral head diameter (HHD) method were greater using the ‘Black’ compared with the ‘White’ equation, both in total and in males separately. The female consistency rates using the two different equations were equal."
🔗Metric sex estimation of ancient Egyptian skeletal remains, Part I: Testing of published methods (uw.edu.pl)
🔗(PDF) Metric sex estimation of ancient egyptian skeletal remains: Part II: Testing of new population-specific methods (researchgate.net)
Dental Traits
In 1996, Lovell and Prowse based on dental and cranial traits, reported the presence of individuals buried at Naqada in what they interpreted to be elite, high status tombs, showing them to be an endogamous ruling or elite segment who were significantly different from individuals buried in two other, apparently nonelite cemeteries, and in certain metrics more closely related morphologically to populations in northern/Lower Nubia (A-Group), than to geographically more approximate samples in Southern Egypt. These differences were attributed by the researchers to genetic drift or immigration. On the other hand, the two non elite samples from Naqada, were most similar to one another, and considered to be biologically homogenous. Overall, the results showed heterogeneity among Nile Valley populations during the early periods of Upper Egyptian and Lower Nubian cultural history, which could be natural variability within related human populations. Moreover, the source of these distinctions in these Egyptian and protodynastic Nubian populations was also considered to be migration during the desertification of the Sahara, with the movements, presence and interactions of distinct populations into the Nile-Valley, who likely came into contact with indigenous Nilotic groups, as indicated by Egyptian anthropologist Fekhri A. Hassan.
🔗(PDF) Concordance of Cranial and Dental Morphological Traits and Evidence for Endogamy In Ancient Egypt | Tracy Prowse - Academia.edu
In the year 2000, a preliminary report on pre-dynastic populations of Hierakonpolis, showed that the inhabitants were Homogenous, and had dental morphological traits that tied them to greater North African populations, which are also present in Europeans and West Asians. The craniometric indicators appear to support these results, and European-like discrete traits, such as alveolar orthognathism, dolichocephaly, rhomboid orbits, narrow nasal aperture, and nasal sills were all prevalent. Overall, the Hierakonpolis inhabitants were uniform in cranial size and form, and distinct from Sub-Saharan Africans.
🔗Nekhen '00 (hierakonpolis-online.org)
Some modern studies on ancient Egyptian dentition clusters the Ancient Egyptians with "Caucasoids" (Europeans and Western Eurasians) who have small/mass reduced teeth, as opposed to Negroids (Western and Eastern Sub-Saharan Africans) who have megadont/large teeth. According to Irish (1998), 12th Dynasty (Lisht), Pharonic, Roman, Byzantine Kharga Egyptians, and Meroitic, X-Group and Christian era Nubians, cluster with other North Africans (Berbers/Guanche) and Europe (Poundbury, England), with this similarity/connection with the indigenous peoples of North Africa, Europe and West Asia existing as far back as possibly 8,500 thousands years. A study by Hanihara and Ishida (2005), showed that Pre-Dynastic and 12th-29th Dynasty Egyptians dentally clustered with Afghans and North Indians on the edge of a larger cluster of Europeans and West Asians, the Somalis and other African populations included showed more Sub-Saharan affinities and did not cluster with Pre-Dynastic and Pharonic era Egyptians.
🔗(PDF) Diachronic and Synchronic Dental Trait Affinities of Late and Post-Pleistocene Peoples from North Africa (researchgate.net)
🔗Metric dental variation of major human populations - Hanihara - 2005 - American Journal of Physical Anthropology - Wiley Online Library
In 1996, Lovell and Prowse based on dental and cranial traits, reported the presence of individuals buried at Naqada in what they interpreted to be elite, high status tombs, showing them to be an endogamous ruling or elite segment who were significantly different from individuals buried in two other, apparently nonelite cemeteries, and in certain metrics more closely related morphologically to populations in northern/Lower Nubia (A-Group), than to geographically more approximate samples in Southern Egypt. These differences were attributed by the researchers to genetic drift or immigration. On the other hand, the two non elite samples from Naqada, were most similar to one another, and considered to be biologically homogenous. Overall, the results showed heterogeneity among Nile Valley populations during the early periods of Upper Egyptian and Lower Nubian cultural history, which could be natural variability within related human populations. Moreover, the source of these distinctions in these Egyptian and protodynastic Nubian populations was also considered to be migration during the desertification of the Sahara, with the movements, presence and interactions of distinct populations into the Nile-Valley, who likely came into contact with indigenous Nilotic groups, as indicated by Egyptian anthropologist Fekhri A. Hassan.
🔗(PDF) Concordance of Cranial and Dental Morphological Traits and Evidence for Endogamy In Ancient Egypt | Tracy Prowse - Academia.edu
In the year 2000, a preliminary report on pre-dynastic populations of Hierakonpolis, showed that the inhabitants were Homogenous, and had dental morphological traits that tied them to greater North African populations, which are also present in Europeans and West Asians. The craniometric indicators appear to support these results, and European-like discrete traits, such as alveolar orthognathism, dolichocephaly, rhomboid orbits, narrow nasal aperture, and nasal sills were all prevalent. Overall, the Hierakonpolis inhabitants were uniform in cranial size and form, and distinct from Sub-Saharan Africans.
🔗Nekhen '00 (hierakonpolis-online.org)
Some modern studies on ancient Egyptian dentition clusters the Ancient Egyptians with "Caucasoids" (Europeans and Western Eurasians) who have small/mass reduced teeth, as opposed to Negroids (Western and Eastern Sub-Saharan Africans) who have megadont/large teeth. According to Irish (1998), 12th Dynasty (Lisht), Pharonic, Roman, Byzantine Kharga Egyptians, and Meroitic, X-Group and Christian era Nubians, cluster with other North Africans (Berbers/Guanche) and Europe (Poundbury, England), with this similarity/connection with the indigenous peoples of North Africa, Europe and West Asia existing as far back as possibly 8,500 thousands years. A study by Hanihara and Ishida (2005), showed that Pre-Dynastic and 12th-29th Dynasty Egyptians dentally clustered with Afghans and North Indians on the edge of a larger cluster of Europeans and West Asians, the Somalis and other African populations included showed more Sub-Saharan affinities and did not cluster with Pre-Dynastic and Pharonic era Egyptians.
🔗(PDF) Diachronic and Synchronic Dental Trait Affinities of Late and Post-Pleistocene Peoples from North Africa (researchgate.net)
🔗Metric dental variation of major human populations - Hanihara - 2005 - American Journal of Physical Anthropology - Wiley Online Library
🔗https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20080
T Hanihara (2000), conducted a study on 112 ancient and modern populations from around the world measuring frontal profile and facial traits. Ancient Egyptians from Badari, Pre-Dynastic Egyptians from Naqada, and 26th-30th Dynasty Egyptians from Gizeh, as well as 12th-13th Dynasty Nubians from Kerma and Early Nubians, plotted with Moroccans, Somalis, Europeans and West/South Asians on the negative end of the facial prognathism scale, and shape of face bones.
🔗Frontal and facial flatness of major human populations - PubMed (nih.gov)
T Hanihara (2000), conducted a study on 112 ancient and modern populations from around the world measuring frontal profile and facial traits. Ancient Egyptians from Badari, Pre-Dynastic Egyptians from Naqada, and 26th-30th Dynasty Egyptians from Gizeh, as well as 12th-13th Dynasty Nubians from Kerma and Early Nubians, plotted with Moroccans, Somalis, Europeans and West/South Asians on the negative end of the facial prognathism scale, and shape of face bones.
🔗Frontal and facial flatness of major human populations - PubMed (nih.gov)
In 2002, the Tasians were shown to have some dental traits similar to Sub-Saharan Africans and also dentition patterns more akin to North Africans. According to the researchers, it is possible that the population may have been a mix of both groups, but the sample size was concluded to be to small to make definitive statements. Incidentally, a later paper from 2017 referenced anthropologist Geoffrey Morant, who studied 3 Tasian skulls, and according to him, they were not substantially different from the Badarians.
🔗(PDF) Friedman Hobbs 2002 A 'Tasian' Tomb in Egypt's Eastern Desert | Renee Friedman and Joseph Hobbs - Academia.edu
🔗(PDF) Re-appraising the Tasian-Badarian divide in the Qau-Matmar region: a critical review of cultural proxies and a comparative analysis of burial dress (researchgate.net)
A 2006 study on the dental morphology of Ancient Egyptians by Bioarcheologist Joel D. Irish, found that their dental traits were most similar to those of other Nile Valley populations (Upper and Lower Egyptians), showing small and simple mass-reduced teeth, that are homogenous across eras in characteristics. Among the samples included in the study was skeletal material of the Fayum Mummies from Hawara (during the Roman period) which clustered with some of the Badarian series of the predynastic period, as well as to that of all other ancient Egyptians, rather than to the Greek/European population in the sample set which itself was a major outlier and divergent from all others. Overall, Irish found that biological continuity was intact from dynastic Egypt, to the later post-pharaonic periods, despite the increase of foreign influence since the early Intermediate periods. This biological continuity based on the affinities of certain predynastic series, could have also extended over the entirety of Egyptian history (pre-dynastic to late Roman times). Irish commented that the source of some heterogeneity, was potentially during the "proto-predynastic" period, where Egypt was settled by various founding populations that were biologically distinct, becoming a "melting pot" by these founder groups. However, the data indicates also interaction and population movement simply between the Nile River Valley, involving Lower and Upper Egyptian communities.
🔗(PDF) Friedman Hobbs 2002 A 'Tasian' Tomb in Egypt's Eastern Desert | Renee Friedman and Joseph Hobbs - Academia.edu
🔗(PDF) Re-appraising the Tasian-Badarian divide in the Qau-Matmar region: a critical review of cultural proxies and a comparative analysis of burial dress (researchgate.net)
A 2006 study on the dental morphology of Ancient Egyptians by Bioarcheologist Joel D. Irish, found that their dental traits were most similar to those of other Nile Valley populations (Upper and Lower Egyptians), showing small and simple mass-reduced teeth, that are homogenous across eras in characteristics. Among the samples included in the study was skeletal material of the Fayum Mummies from Hawara (during the Roman period) which clustered with some of the Badarian series of the predynastic period, as well as to that of all other ancient Egyptians, rather than to the Greek/European population in the sample set which itself was a major outlier and divergent from all others. Overall, Irish found that biological continuity was intact from dynastic Egypt, to the later post-pharaonic periods, despite the increase of foreign influence since the early Intermediate periods. This biological continuity based on the affinities of certain predynastic series, could have also extended over the entirety of Egyptian history (pre-dynastic to late Roman times). Irish commented that the source of some heterogeneity, was potentially during the "proto-predynastic" period, where Egypt was settled by various founding populations that were biologically distinct, becoming a "melting pot" by these founder groups. However, the data indicates also interaction and population movement simply between the Nile River Valley, involving Lower and Upper Egyptian communities.
🔗(PDF) Who Were the Ancient Egyptians? Dental Affinities Among Neolithic Through Postdynastic Peoples (researchgate.net)
In 2012, Scott Donald Haddow referenced Irish and Friedman who used dental morphological traits to determine whether C-Group Nubians resident at Hierakonpolis during the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period remained genetically distinct from local Egyptians or became increasingly similar as a result of gene flow between the two groups. The results indicate that C- Group Nubians maintained their genetic distinctiveness throughout their occupation at Hierakonpolis despite being becoming culturally "Egyptianised" overtime.
🔗Microsoft Word - THESIS_NEWEST_NEW (ucl.ac.uk)
In 2015, the dental traits of King Tutankhamun were seen as having mandibular retrognathism which is a disorder, possible from inbreeding.
🔗SciELO - Brazil - Tutankhamun's Dentition: The Pharaoh and his Teeth Tutankhamun's Dentition: The Pharaoh and his Teeth
Biological Anthropologist Eric Crubezy in 2017 (originally 2010), found that a predynastic cemetery in Adaima dated to 4,000 BCE in Upper Egypt showed "Khoisan" dental markers (formally referred to as "Bushmen canine"). Generally, Aidama appear more Nubian than Egyptian in dental traits, with affinities to Jebel Sahaba, but with morphology the population exhibiting evidence of North African and Sub-Saharan admixture. He also said in relation to the ancient populations, that the people buried at Aidama provide compelling evidence for genetic diversity across pre-dynastic groups, in his study of around 800 morphologically well-reserved skeletons. Eric and colleagues noted that in Upper Egypt, the population settlement of the Nile Valley in the early predynastic period resulted in the fusion of populations with European affinities, and some Sub-Saharan populations, and Neolithic populations from Lake Chad during the desertification of the Sahara.
🔗Adaima 3. Demographic and epidemiological transition before the Pharaohs | Request PDF (researchgate.net)
🔗Adaïma 3. Demographic and Epidemiological Transitions before the Pharaohs Éric Crubézy (ed.) Fouilles de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale (FIFAO) 76, Institut français d’archéologie orientale, Le Caire, 2017 - Persée (persee.fr)
A study of dental traits by Nina Maaranen and Sonia Zakrzewski in 2021 on 90 people of Avaris indicated that individuals defined as locals and non-locals were not ancestrally different from one another. The results were said to be in line with the archaeological evidence, suggesting Avaris was an important hub in the Middle Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean trade network, welcoming people from beyond its borders.
🔗(PDF) The people of Avaris: Intra-regional biodistance analysis using dental non-metric traits | Nina Maaranen and Chris Stantis - Academia.edu
In 2012, Scott Donald Haddow referenced Irish and Friedman who used dental morphological traits to determine whether C-Group Nubians resident at Hierakonpolis during the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period remained genetically distinct from local Egyptians or became increasingly similar as a result of gene flow between the two groups. The results indicate that C- Group Nubians maintained their genetic distinctiveness throughout their occupation at Hierakonpolis despite being becoming culturally "Egyptianised" overtime.
🔗Microsoft Word - THESIS_NEWEST_NEW (ucl.ac.uk)
In 2015, the dental traits of King Tutankhamun were seen as having mandibular retrognathism which is a disorder, possible from inbreeding.
🔗SciELO - Brazil - Tutankhamun's Dentition: The Pharaoh and his Teeth Tutankhamun's Dentition: The Pharaoh and his Teeth
Biological Anthropologist Eric Crubezy in 2017 (originally 2010), found that a predynastic cemetery in Adaima dated to 4,000 BCE in Upper Egypt showed "Khoisan" dental markers (formally referred to as "Bushmen canine"). Generally, Aidama appear more Nubian than Egyptian in dental traits, with affinities to Jebel Sahaba, but with morphology the population exhibiting evidence of North African and Sub-Saharan admixture. He also said in relation to the ancient populations, that the people buried at Aidama provide compelling evidence for genetic diversity across pre-dynastic groups, in his study of around 800 morphologically well-reserved skeletons. Eric and colleagues noted that in Upper Egypt, the population settlement of the Nile Valley in the early predynastic period resulted in the fusion of populations with European affinities, and some Sub-Saharan populations, and Neolithic populations from Lake Chad during the desertification of the Sahara.
🔗Adaima 3. Demographic and epidemiological transition before the Pharaohs | Request PDF (researchgate.net)
🔗Adaïma 3. Demographic and Epidemiological Transitions before the Pharaohs Éric Crubézy (ed.) Fouilles de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale (FIFAO) 76, Institut français d’archéologie orientale, Le Caire, 2017 - Persée (persee.fr)
A study of dental traits by Nina Maaranen and Sonia Zakrzewski in 2021 on 90 people of Avaris indicated that individuals defined as locals and non-locals were not ancestrally different from one another. The results were said to be in line with the archaeological evidence, suggesting Avaris was an important hub in the Middle Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean trade network, welcoming people from beyond its borders.
🔗(PDF) The people of Avaris: Intra-regional biodistance analysis using dental non-metric traits | Nina Maaranen and Chris Stantis - Academia.edu
Modern Egyptian Bioanthropological Studies:
Eugene Pittard (1926) found that the majority of Copts and Fellaheen are Dolichocephals, and Pittard highlighted some Negroid-like features found among the contemporary rural Fellah of Egypt. He also stated that the Copts and Fellaheen are the anthropological image and physical representations of the Ancient Egyptians.
🔗Race and History: An Ethnological Introduction to History - Eugène Pittard - Google Books
According to anthropologist Raymond Dart, in a review of 2861 skulls of Egyptians from early dynastic times down to the present-day population conducted in 1939, he stated they reaffirmed the earlier analysis of Elliot Smith who concluded: “The study of this extraordinarily complete series of human remains, providing in a manner such as no other site has ever done the materials for reconstruction of the racial history of one spot during more than forty-five centuries, made it abundantly clear that the people whose remains were buried just before the introduction of Islam into Egypt were of the same flesh and blood as their forerunners in the same locality before the dawn of history. And nine years' experience in the Anatomical Department of the School of Medicine in Cairo, has left me in no doubt that the bulk of the present population of Egypt conforms to precisely the same racial type, which has thus been dominant in the northern portion of the Valley of the Nile for sixty centuries."
🔗POPULATION FLUCTUATION OVER 7000 YEARS IN EGYPT: Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa: Vol 27, No 2 (tandfonline.com)
Selim, O et al (1974) found that Upper Egyptian populations from the Kharga Oasis, had males with more Caucasoid craniometry, and were related to other populations in Upper Egypt, while the Negro influence was much higher in the Dakhla Oasis. However, both populations were found to have morphology that is characterized as being a mixture of Caucasoid and Negroid features. In terms of genetics, the frequency of a specific Negroid gene in Kharga was 1%, while in Dakhla it was 22%. This specific variant in the genome is strongly considered a Negro trait, where it indicates admixture with African Negroes. In the Siwa Oasis Berbers these alleles were slightly higher at 22.17%, being the highest in sample size. The inhabitants at the Siwa Oasis are considered to be a composite of Ancient Egyptian, Libyan Berbers, and Arabs.
🔗Genetic markers and anthropometry in the populations of the Egyptian oases of El-Kharga and El-Dakhla - PubMed (nih.gov)
Bioarcheologist and Pathologist, Patricia Smith (2002), in her entry noted that: "the biological characteristics of modern Egyptians show a north-south cline, reflecting their geographic location between sub-Saharan Africa and the Levant. This is expressed in DNA, blood groups, serum proteins and genetic disorders (Filon 1996; Hammer et al. 1998; Krings et al. 1999). They can also be expressed in phenotypic characteristics that can be identified in teeth and bones (Crichton 1966; Froment 1992; Keita 1996). These characteristics include head form, facial and nasal characteristics, jaw relationships, tooth size, morphology and upper/lower limb proportions. In all these features, Modern Egyptians resemble Sub-Saharan Africans (Howells 1989, Keita 1995)."
Eugene Pittard (1926) found that the majority of Copts and Fellaheen are Dolichocephals, and Pittard highlighted some Negroid-like features found among the contemporary rural Fellah of Egypt. He also stated that the Copts and Fellaheen are the anthropological image and physical representations of the Ancient Egyptians.
🔗Race and History: An Ethnological Introduction to History - Eugène Pittard - Google Books
According to anthropologist Raymond Dart, in a review of 2861 skulls of Egyptians from early dynastic times down to the present-day population conducted in 1939, he stated they reaffirmed the earlier analysis of Elliot Smith who concluded: “The study of this extraordinarily complete series of human remains, providing in a manner such as no other site has ever done the materials for reconstruction of the racial history of one spot during more than forty-five centuries, made it abundantly clear that the people whose remains were buried just before the introduction of Islam into Egypt were of the same flesh and blood as their forerunners in the same locality before the dawn of history. And nine years' experience in the Anatomical Department of the School of Medicine in Cairo, has left me in no doubt that the bulk of the present population of Egypt conforms to precisely the same racial type, which has thus been dominant in the northern portion of the Valley of the Nile for sixty centuries."
🔗POPULATION FLUCTUATION OVER 7000 YEARS IN EGYPT: Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa: Vol 27, No 2 (tandfonline.com)
Selim, O et al (1974) found that Upper Egyptian populations from the Kharga Oasis, had males with more Caucasoid craniometry, and were related to other populations in Upper Egypt, while the Negro influence was much higher in the Dakhla Oasis. However, both populations were found to have morphology that is characterized as being a mixture of Caucasoid and Negroid features. In terms of genetics, the frequency of a specific Negroid gene in Kharga was 1%, while in Dakhla it was 22%. This specific variant in the genome is strongly considered a Negro trait, where it indicates admixture with African Negroes. In the Siwa Oasis Berbers these alleles were slightly higher at 22.17%, being the highest in sample size. The inhabitants at the Siwa Oasis are considered to be a composite of Ancient Egyptian, Libyan Berbers, and Arabs.
🔗Genetic markers and anthropometry in the populations of the Egyptian oases of El-Kharga and El-Dakhla - PubMed (nih.gov)
Bioarcheologist and Pathologist, Patricia Smith (2002), in her entry noted that: "the biological characteristics of modern Egyptians show a north-south cline, reflecting their geographic location between sub-Saharan Africa and the Levant. This is expressed in DNA, blood groups, serum proteins and genetic disorders (Filon 1996; Hammer et al. 1998; Krings et al. 1999). They can also be expressed in phenotypic characteristics that can be identified in teeth and bones (Crichton 1966; Froment 1992; Keita 1996). These characteristics include head form, facial and nasal characteristics, jaw relationships, tooth size, morphology and upper/lower limb proportions. In all these features, Modern Egyptians resemble Sub-Saharan Africans (Howells 1989, Keita 1995)."
🔗http://bioanthropology.huji.ac.il/pdf/13.pdf
🔗Egypt and the Levant: Interrelations from the 4th Through the Early 3rd ... - Google Books
In 2003 (republished in 2013), an evolutionary study showed that Modern Egyptians have limb ratios nearly identical to other Africans, tropical Indians, Melanesians, and are a heat adapted population. The contemporary Egyptians in terms of Tibia/Femur length indices were 84.9%/26.1, while African Pygmies are 85.1%/24.2, and Black Americans 85.25%/26. In contrast, cold adapted populations like the Inuit had 81.5%/4, 82.5%/10 for Belgians, and 82.6%/9.8 for the White Americans. A shorter tibia in relation to femur indicates a relatively short leg, which is an indication of micro-adaptation to colder climates. In general when comparing White European and Black African descendant populations, limb morphology show that Negroid groups 🔗have a significantly longer and narrower femur and tibia than Caucasoids.
🔗Egypt and the Levant: Interrelations from the 4th Through the Early 3rd ... - Google Books
In 2003 (republished in 2013), an evolutionary study showed that Modern Egyptians have limb ratios nearly identical to other Africans, tropical Indians, Melanesians, and are a heat adapted population. The contemporary Egyptians in terms of Tibia/Femur length indices were 84.9%/26.1, while African Pygmies are 85.1%/24.2, and Black Americans 85.25%/26. In contrast, cold adapted populations like the Inuit had 81.5%/4, 82.5%/10 for Belgians, and 82.6%/9.8 for the White Americans. A shorter tibia in relation to femur indicates a relatively short leg, which is an indication of micro-adaptation to colder climates. In general when comparing White European and Black African descendant populations, limb morphology show that Negroid groups 🔗have a significantly longer and narrower femur and tibia than Caucasoids.
🔗https://www.fulcrum.org/concern/file_sets/n870zr565?locale=en
🔗Limb length in ancient and modern Egyptians, compared. | Mathilda's Anthropology Blog. (wordpress.com)
According to a dendrogram constructed by Barry J. Kemp (2006), which pooled various data and cranial metrics on the male and female populations of ancient and contemporary groups; the compiled dataset showed that the Ancient Egyptians were close to historic Modern Egyptians firstly (includes both Northern and Southern Egyptians), and then secondarily with Ethiopians and Nubians. Both the Ancient Egyptians and Nubians/Kushites were separate from all other human population groups in the analysis, which included; African Negroes, Near Easterners, and Europeans, as well as the historic Maghreb and holocene African crania. The clustering diagrams were based on how the program sequenced metric algorithms, and grouped similar or dissimilar skulls together.
🔗Limb length in ancient and modern Egyptians, compared. | Mathilda's Anthropology Blog. (wordpress.com)
 |
| *credit:🔗Body Proportions of Select Modern Human Population Groups by Mean Index of Tibia/Femur Length (Crural Index) |
🔗Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilisation - Barry J. Kemp - Google Books
In the year 2009, a study called 'A systematic review of the nasal index and the significance of the shape and size of the nose in rhinology' published data on human nasal index which had the region of Egypt sat at 76-80 being intermediate, while the regions of Somalia was 66-70 (similar to Europeans and South Arabians) being exceptionally narrow, and Ethiopia and Sudan was 71-75 being also narrow. The narrowest noses were found in the populations of the Levant and Caucasus. In contrast, the other parts Africa had populations with much broader noses at 91-100 and 100+. The same dataset was reused and remodeled in a 2019 publication on human nose characteristics and their variations.
 |
| Ancient Egyptians plotting with Modern Egyptians, Nubians and Ethiopians |
🔗The navigational nose: a new hypothesis for the function of the human external pyramid (berkeley.edu)
In 2022, the morphological craniofacial features of Modern Egyptians were said to be similar to Northeast Africans, Mediterranean West Asians, and Europeans. The results were said to correlate with the genetic analysis of the National Geographic Genographic Project, which revealed the largest genetic element of modern day native Egyptians is from the Northern Africa area.
🔗(PDF) Exploring the genetic factors affecting the craniofacial morphology of Egyptian ancestry (researchgate.net)
Contemporary DNA Studies:In 2022, the morphological craniofacial features of Modern Egyptians were said to be similar to Northeast Africans, Mediterranean West Asians, and Europeans. The results were said to correlate with the genetic analysis of the National Geographic Genographic Project, which revealed the largest genetic element of modern day native Egyptians is from the Northern Africa area.
🔗(PDF) Exploring the genetic factors affecting the craniofacial morphology of Egyptian ancestry (researchgate.net)
Y-Chromosome Data
G. Lucotte and G. Mercier in 2003 analyzed the Y-chromosome haplotypes in Egypt by region. The 66 Upper Egyptians had 80.3% chromosomes with a Northern African origin and the 162 sampled Lower Egyptians had 64.8% of Northern African derived Y-Chromosomes. The 46 individuals inhabiting historic Lower Nubia (mix of Sa'idis and Nubians) had collectively 86.9% of Northern African associated Y-Chromosomes.
🔗Brief communication: Y‐chromosome haplotypes in Egypt - Lucotte - 2003 - American Journal of Physical Anthropology - Wiley Online Library
Arredi et al. (2004), discovered that most of the Y-chromosome variation that exists in North Africans, including Egyptians, was shaped during the Neolithic phases. The study also found that the 44 Lower Egyptians from the Nile Delta (Mansoura), had 51.3% E1b1b paternal chromosomes, 18.2% for J1, 9.9% for R1b-V88, and 2.3% for R1a.
🔗https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-predominantly-neolithic-origin-for-Y-chromosomal-Arredi-Poloni/3ab53e7257e2703d471dbe0f998d8e3f4fb0ffe4
🔗https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707624173#fig3
A study in 2004, found that out of 147 sampled individuals from North Egypt, 36.1% had E1b1b, 32.0% J1/J2, 8.8% G, 8.2% T, and 7.5% R1b.
🔗The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations - PMC (nih.gov)
Wood, Elizabeth T et al. (2005) sampled 92 Northern Egyptians, and 46.8% had Haplogroup E, 22.8% had J, 7.6% T, 5.4% R1b, and lastly 1.1% I.
🔗Contrasting patterns of Y chromosome and mtDNA variation in Africa: evidence for sex-biased demographic processes | European Journal of Human Genetics (nature.com)
In 2005, based on studies dealing with the contemporary Y-Chromosome distribution in Egypt, Keita and co. concluded that there was no wholesale population replacement. Which to them was not especially surprising because there is no evidence that the earliest Arabic-speakers, who came as teachers of Islam, intended to replace the indigenous populations biologically. North Africans are primarily Arabic speakers because of language and cultural shift, and not settler colonization. He further elaborated that: “The peoples of the Egyptian and northern Sudanese Nile valley, and supra-Saharan Africa now speak Arabic in the main, but as noted, this largely represents language shift. Ancient Egyptian is Afroasiatic, and current inhabitants of the Nile Valley should be understood as being in the main, although not wholly, descendants of the pre-Neolithic regional inhabitants, although this apparently varies by geography, as indicated by the frequency of Near Eastern haplotypes/lineages.”
🔗Genetics, Egypt, and History: Interpreting Geographical Patterns of Y Chromosome Variation on JSTOR
🔗Project MUSE - Genetics, Egypt, and History: Interpreting Geographical Patterns of Y Chromosome Variation (jhu.edu) https://muse.jhu.edu/article/187884/pdf
According to a study in 2007, the E-M78 main parent clade originated in Northern Africa between Libya and Egypt, and subsequently back migrated into the Horn of Africa and other regions leaving downstream mutations. Furthermore, in this paper, from 72 Delta Egyptians, 23.6% bore the derived E-M78 clades specifically, and from 79 Southern Egyptians 50.6%, 41.4% for 41 Egyptians from the Bahariya Oasis in Lower Egypt, and 17.6% for the 33 Gurna Oasis Egyptians.
Mohamed, T et al. (2009) in their study of nomadic Bedouins featured a comparative study with a worldwide population database and a sample size of 153 Bedouin males to infer genetic structure. Their analysis discovered that both Muslim Egyptians and Coptic Christians showed a distinct North African cluster at 65% (with Adima Muslims at 63%), when compared to other Arab populations in the Middle-East and Europeans. This was their predominant ancestral component, and unique to the geographic region of Egypt. The distinct clusters from these various populations correlated with regional affiliation and general location.
A study in 2004, found that out of 147 sampled individuals from North Egypt, 36.1% had E1b1b, 32.0% J1/J2, 8.8% G, 8.2% T, and 7.5% R1b.
🔗The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations - PMC (nih.gov)
Wood, Elizabeth T et al. (2005) sampled 92 Northern Egyptians, and 46.8% had Haplogroup E, 22.8% had J, 7.6% T, 5.4% R1b, and lastly 1.1% I.
🔗Contrasting patterns of Y chromosome and mtDNA variation in Africa: evidence for sex-biased demographic processes | European Journal of Human Genetics (nature.com)
In 2005, based on studies dealing with the contemporary Y-Chromosome distribution in Egypt, Keita and co. concluded that there was no wholesale population replacement. Which to them was not especially surprising because there is no evidence that the earliest Arabic-speakers, who came as teachers of Islam, intended to replace the indigenous populations biologically. North Africans are primarily Arabic speakers because of language and cultural shift, and not settler colonization. He further elaborated that: “The peoples of the Egyptian and northern Sudanese Nile valley, and supra-Saharan Africa now speak Arabic in the main, but as noted, this largely represents language shift. Ancient Egyptian is Afroasiatic, and current inhabitants of the Nile Valley should be understood as being in the main, although not wholly, descendants of the pre-Neolithic regional inhabitants, although this apparently varies by geography, as indicated by the frequency of Near Eastern haplotypes/lineages.”
🔗Genetics, Egypt, and History: Interpreting Geographical Patterns of Y Chromosome Variation on JSTOR
🔗Project MUSE - Genetics, Egypt, and History: Interpreting Geographical Patterns of Y Chromosome Variation (jhu.edu) https://muse.jhu.edu/article/187884/pdf
According to a study in 2007, the E-M78 main parent clade originated in Northern Africa between Libya and Egypt, and subsequently back migrated into the Horn of Africa and other regions leaving downstream mutations. Furthermore, in this paper, from 72 Delta Egyptians, 23.6% bore the derived E-M78 clades specifically, and from 79 Southern Egyptians 50.6%, 41.4% for 41 Egyptians from the Bahariya Oasis in Lower Egypt, and 17.6% for the 33 Gurna Oasis Egyptians.
🔗Tracing Past Human Male Movements in Northern/Eastern Africa and Western Eurasia: New Clues from Y-Chromosomal Haplogroups E-M78 and J-M12 | Molecular Biology and Evolution | Oxford Academic
Kujanova Martina et al. (2009), discovered that out of 35 Lower Egyptians from the Bahariya Oasis (El-Hayez), the study revealed high frequencies of North African E1b1b1b at 68.6%, and high frequencies of the Near-Eastern J1 lineages at 31.4%, both of which are considered by the study and known to have generally expanded within/across North Africa during the Neolithic phases. The study also showed that the Near-Eastern input into this population was dated to the prehistoric Neolithic, also because of the variability in the mtDNA variants of Mitochondrial haplogroup T variants.
Kujanova Martina et al. (2009), discovered that out of 35 Lower Egyptians from the Bahariya Oasis (El-Hayez), the study revealed high frequencies of North African E1b1b1b at 68.6%, and high frequencies of the Near-Eastern J1 lineages at 31.4%, both of which are considered by the study and known to have generally expanded within/across North Africa during the Neolithic phases. The study also showed that the Near-Eastern input into this population was dated to the prehistoric Neolithic, also because of the variability in the mtDNA variants of Mitochondrial haplogroup T variants.
🔗Near eastern neolithic genetic input in a small oasis of the Egyptian Western Desert - PubMed (nih.gov)
The Y-DNA of 100 Upper Egyptian Copts from Aidama Egypt were analyzed by Eric Crubezy in 2010. He found that 74% were E1b1b, 7% G, 3% T, 1% J1 and 15% being unidentifiable. The Aidama Muslims were not numbered or sample listed and the paper was not subject to peer review, but he noted that they may have had a higher frequency of G (88%), which he correlated to have Middle Eastern origins, and its presence in the Mediterranean Basin possibly tied to the Arab expansion, but it was found in Copts which he stated signals that it could be much older. Haplogroup L0f was also found amongst modern Egyptian Muslims from Aidama at 3%, which the researcher considered was remnants of a "proto-Khoisan" related population. However, all of the L lineages were only present in the Muslims and none in the endogamous Christians, which the author considered to be troubling, as he says it could signal that most are simply a result of the Trans-Saharan-Slave Trade.
🔗Le peuplement de la vallée du Nil - Persée (persee.fr)
🔗AN20pourimpression.pdf (archeonil.com)
Trombetta et al. (2015) found that 47 Southern Egyptians had 78.7% E1b1b frequencies, with majority of it being E-V12. The 49 Northern Egyptians in the study were found to have 42.9% E1b1b frequencies, being E-V22 subclades.
🔗Phylogeographic Refinement and Large Scale Genotyping of Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup E Provide New Insights into the Dispersal of Early Pastoralists in the African Continent - PMC (nih.gov)
A 2004 mtDNA study of 58 upper Egyptian individuals included 34 individuals from the Gurna Oasis, a small settlement on the hills of the West Bank opposite Luxor. The 34 individuals from Gurna exhibited the haplogroups: M1 (6/34 individuals, 17.6%), H (5/34 individuals, 14.7%), L1a (4/34 individuals, 11.8%) and U (3/34 individuals, 8.8%). The M1 haplotype frequency in Gurna individuals (6/34 individuals, 17.6%) is similar to that seen in Ethiopian population (20%), along with a West Eurasian component different in haplogroup distribution in the Gurna individuals. However, the M1 haplotypes from Gurna individuals exhibited a mutation that is not present in Ethiopian population; whereas this mutation was present in non-M1 haplotype individuals from Gurna. Other Nile Valley Egyptians do not show the characteristics that were shown by the Gurna individuals. The results of the study suggested that the sample of Gurna individuals had retained elements of a genetic structure from an ancestral East African population, characterized by a high M1 haplogroup frequency. Another 2004 mtDNA study featured the Gurna individuals samples, and clustered them together with the Ethiopian and Yemeni groups, in between the Near Eastern and other African sample groups.
🔗Mitochondrial DNA sequence diversity in a sedentary population from Egypt - PubMed (nih.gov)
🔗Ethiopian Mitochondrial DNA Heritage: Tracking Gene Flow Across and Around the Gate of Tears - PMC (nih.gov)
Saunier, Jessica et al (2009) sequenced mitogenomes from 277 unrelated Egyptian individuals. The results showed that 20.6% of Egyptian mtDNA chromosomes were of Sub-Saharan African origin, and 79.4% were of West Eurasian origin.
🔗Mitochondrial control region sequences from an Egyptian population sample - PubMed (nih.gov)
Autosomal Data
The Y-DNA of 100 Upper Egyptian Copts from Aidama Egypt were analyzed by Eric Crubezy in 2010. He found that 74% were E1b1b, 7% G, 3% T, 1% J1 and 15% being unidentifiable. The Aidama Muslims were not numbered or sample listed and the paper was not subject to peer review, but he noted that they may have had a higher frequency of G (88%), which he correlated to have Middle Eastern origins, and its presence in the Mediterranean Basin possibly tied to the Arab expansion, but it was found in Copts which he stated signals that it could be much older. Haplogroup L0f was also found amongst modern Egyptian Muslims from Aidama at 3%, which the researcher considered was remnants of a "proto-Khoisan" related population. However, all of the L lineages were only present in the Muslims and none in the endogamous Christians, which the author considered to be troubling, as he says it could signal that most are simply a result of the Trans-Saharan-Slave Trade.
🔗Le peuplement de la vallée du Nil - Persée (persee.fr)
🔗AN20pourimpression.pdf (archeonil.com)
Trombetta et al. (2015) found that 47 Southern Egyptians had 78.7% E1b1b frequencies, with majority of it being E-V12. The 49 Northern Egyptians in the study were found to have 42.9% E1b1b frequencies, being E-V22 subclades.
🔗Phylogeographic Refinement and Large Scale Genotyping of Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup E Provide New Insights into the Dispersal of Early Pastoralists in the African Continent - PMC (nih.gov)
A 2019 study likewise noted the high percentage of specific clades of E1b1b markers in Northern African populations, on characterizing the common E-V12 Y-Chromosome: "This haplogroup is present at high frequency across present-day North Africa, especially
in Egypt (up to 74.5%), but at low frequency in the Levant, Anatolia, and Mediterranean Europe.
🔗Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean - PMC (nih.gov)
Mitochondrial Data🔗Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean - PMC (nih.gov)
A 2004 mtDNA study of 58 upper Egyptian individuals included 34 individuals from the Gurna Oasis, a small settlement on the hills of the West Bank opposite Luxor. The 34 individuals from Gurna exhibited the haplogroups: M1 (6/34 individuals, 17.6%), H (5/34 individuals, 14.7%), L1a (4/34 individuals, 11.8%) and U (3/34 individuals, 8.8%). The M1 haplotype frequency in Gurna individuals (6/34 individuals, 17.6%) is similar to that seen in Ethiopian population (20%), along with a West Eurasian component different in haplogroup distribution in the Gurna individuals. However, the M1 haplotypes from Gurna individuals exhibited a mutation that is not present in Ethiopian population; whereas this mutation was present in non-M1 haplotype individuals from Gurna. Other Nile Valley Egyptians do not show the characteristics that were shown by the Gurna individuals. The results of the study suggested that the sample of Gurna individuals had retained elements of a genetic structure from an ancestral East African population, characterized by a high M1 haplogroup frequency. Another 2004 mtDNA study featured the Gurna individuals samples, and clustered them together with the Ethiopian and Yemeni groups, in between the Near Eastern and other African sample groups.
🔗Mitochondrial DNA sequence diversity in a sedentary population from Egypt - PubMed (nih.gov)
🔗Ethiopian Mitochondrial DNA Heritage: Tracking Gene Flow Across and Around the Gate of Tears - PMC (nih.gov)
Saunier, Jessica et al (2009) sequenced mitogenomes from 277 unrelated Egyptian individuals. The results showed that 20.6% of Egyptian mtDNA chromosomes were of Sub-Saharan African origin, and 79.4% were of West Eurasian origin.
🔗Mitochondrial control region sequences from an Egyptian population sample - PubMed (nih.gov)
Autosomal Data
A scientific report featured in a documentary in 2001 called 🔗Secrets of the Pharaohs: the Lost City of the Pyramids, that sampled Ancient Egyptian workmen, found them to be ancestral to Modern Egyptians, and they reported the same people have been living in the region for over 6,000 years.
From the years of 2005-2019, the National Geographic Genographic Project collected samples from populations from around the world. They had two admixture runs, the Geno 2.0 in 2014 and the Gene 2.0 Next Generation which continued from 2017, the first labeled based on similar ancestral regions, the second made further distinctions between components by biogeographical locations. In the secondary DNA analysis, the highest ancestral component in Egypt was from Northern Africa.
🔗Your Regional Ancestry: Regions (archive.org)
🔗Reference Populations - Geno 2.0 Next Generation (archive.org)
🔗National Geographic's DNA Analysis Concludes that Egyptians are Only 17% Arab (cairoscene.com)
From the years of 2005-2019, the National Geographic Genographic Project collected samples from populations from around the world. They had two admixture runs, the Geno 2.0 in 2014 and the Gene 2.0 Next Generation which continued from 2017, the first labeled based on similar ancestral regions, the second made further distinctions between components by biogeographical locations. In the secondary DNA analysis, the highest ancestral component in Egypt was from Northern Africa.
🔗Your Regional Ancestry: Regions (archive.org)
🔗Reference Populations - Geno 2.0 Next Generation (archive.org)
🔗National Geographic's DNA Analysis Concludes that Egyptians are Only 17% Arab (cairoscene.com)
 |
| Geno 2.0 (Top) and Geno 2.0 Next Generations (Bottom) |
🔗Genetic structure of nomadic Bedouin from Kuwait - PMC (nih.gov)
🔗https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2869035/pdf/ukmss-27159.pdf
In the same year, a study using 15 STR data associated with ancestral alleles compared Upper Egyptians with other ethnic groups in Egypt. They found that based on the frequency and molecular data, no differences were observed in comparison with the general Caucasian population from Cairo in any of the nine loci compared or with Egyptian Christians from Cairo. However, one out of eight loci showed a difference in comparison with a population from El-Minya city. At the molecular data level, there was a weak significant difference when Upper Egyptians when compared with Egyptian Muslims from Tanta, albeit with a non significant value in an exact test of population differentiation.
🔗https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2869035/pdf/ukmss-27159.pdf
In the same year, a study using 15 STR data associated with ancestral alleles compared Upper Egyptians with other ethnic groups in Egypt. They found that based on the frequency and molecular data, no differences were observed in comparison with the general Caucasian population from Cairo in any of the nine loci compared or with Egyptian Christians from Cairo. However, one out of eight loci showed a difference in comparison with a population from El-Minya city. At the molecular data level, there was a weak significant difference when Upper Egyptians when compared with Egyptian Muslims from Tanta, albeit with a non significant value in an exact test of population differentiation.
In 2010, it was reported that; "Studies on modern Egyptian DNA support the view that neither Egyptian Muslims nor Copts are Arab. All the invasions that Egypt has experienced over millennia, including the Arab invasion, do not seem to account for more than 15% of modern Egyptians' ancestry. So Egyptians are not genetically Arabs, but they may be so culturally and linguistically."
🔗https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/jul/08/egyptian-arab-cultural-identity
According to Pagani et al. (2015), Modern Egyptians have 80% of their genome being derived from non-Africans, while the non-African ancestry in Ethiopians like the Amhara and Oromo was at 50%, and 40% non-African ancestry in the Somali, and lastly 30% for the included Wolayta. In contrast to all these populations, the Ethiopian Gumuz showed no or negligible amounts of non-African admixture. The study also found that Modern Egyptians retained small traces of a distinct African ancestry separate from West and East Africans, which indicated a minor degree of population continuity since the OOA (Out of Africa) dispersal. Recent historic dates were given for the non-African/Western Eurasian admixture (750 years ago, and 2500-3000 years ago respectively), but archaeogenetic data and newer studies have better contextualized the misleading and wrong dating conclusions. Biochemist and paleogeneticist Johannes Krause in 2017, responded to the timing hypotheses advanced by Luca Pagani and colleagues, as his findings discovered that the variation with non-Africans is actually much older based on ancient DNA samples, showing that populations ancestral to the contemporary Egyptians already existed in the region: "Our data seem to indicate close admixture and affinity at a much earlier date, which is unsurprising given the long and complex connections between Egypt and the Middle East. These connections date back to Prehistory and occurred at a variety of scales, including overland and maritime commerce, diplomacy, immigration, invasion and deportation."
According to Pagani et al. (2015), Modern Egyptians have 80% of their genome being derived from non-Africans, while the non-African ancestry in Ethiopians like the Amhara and Oromo was at 50%, and 40% non-African ancestry in the Somali, and lastly 30% for the included Wolayta. In contrast to all these populations, the Ethiopian Gumuz showed no or negligible amounts of non-African admixture. The study also found that Modern Egyptians retained small traces of a distinct African ancestry separate from West and East Africans, which indicated a minor degree of population continuity since the OOA (Out of Africa) dispersal. Recent historic dates were given for the non-African/Western Eurasian admixture (750 years ago, and 2500-3000 years ago respectively), but archaeogenetic data and newer studies have better contextualized the misleading and wrong dating conclusions. Biochemist and paleogeneticist Johannes Krause in 2017, responded to the timing hypotheses advanced by Luca Pagani and colleagues, as his findings discovered that the variation with non-Africans is actually much older based on ancient DNA samples, showing that populations ancestral to the contemporary Egyptians already existed in the region: "Our data seem to indicate close admixture and affinity at a much earlier date, which is unsurprising given the long and complex connections between Egypt and the Middle East. These connections date back to Prehistory and occurred at a variety of scales, including overland and maritime commerce, diplomacy, immigration, invasion and deportation."
🔗Tracing the Route of Modern Humans out of Africa by Using 225 Human Genome Sequences from Ethiopians and Egyptians - PMC (nih.gov)
🔗Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods - PubMed (nih.gov)
Furthermore, according to a paper from 2020, many referenced studies are revealing that the Eurasian/European and Middle Eastern components in the populations from North Africa and the Horn of Africa are resulting from prehistoric back-to-Africa migrations. The population data, and ancient DNA being sampled are revealing that much of the genetic variation in Western Eurasian ancestry in these regions can be attributed to more likely prehistoric times, with North Africa being a melting pot of the aforementioned components. The study also revealed little genetic heterogeneity amongst the 110 studied Egyptian genomes, showing population homogeneity.
🔗An integrated personal and population-based Egyptian genome reference - PMC (nih.gov)
An allele frequency comparative study conducted in 2020 between the two main Egyptian ethnic groups, Muslims and Christians, each group represented by a sample of 100 unrelated healthy individuals, supported the conclusion that Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Christians genetically originate from the same ancestors.
🔗Allele frequency comparative study between the two main Egyptian ethnic groups - ScienceDirect
In 2021, the ancient components of samples from Modern Egypt, was said to be made up of 45% Levant Neolithic, 33% Iran Neolithic, 15% Mota, and 8% Eastern Hunter Gatherer.
🔗The genomic history of the Middle East - PubMed (nih.gov)
🔗Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods - PubMed (nih.gov)
Furthermore, according to a paper from 2020, many referenced studies are revealing that the Eurasian/European and Middle Eastern components in the populations from North Africa and the Horn of Africa are resulting from prehistoric back-to-Africa migrations. The population data, and ancient DNA being sampled are revealing that much of the genetic variation in Western Eurasian ancestry in these regions can be attributed to more likely prehistoric times, with North Africa being a melting pot of the aforementioned components. The study also revealed little genetic heterogeneity amongst the 110 studied Egyptian genomes, showing population homogeneity.
🔗An integrated personal and population-based Egyptian genome reference - PMC (nih.gov)
An allele frequency comparative study conducted in 2020 between the two main Egyptian ethnic groups, Muslims and Christians, each group represented by a sample of 100 unrelated healthy individuals, supported the conclusion that Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Christians genetically originate from the same ancestors.
🔗Allele frequency comparative study between the two main Egyptian ethnic groups - ScienceDirect
In 2021, the ancient components of samples from Modern Egypt, was said to be made up of 45% Levant Neolithic, 33% Iran Neolithic, 15% Mota, and 8% Eastern Hunter Gatherer.
🔗The genomic history of the Middle East - PubMed (nih.gov)
Archive Last Edited: 08/10/2024
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